ATINGIDOS PELO FURACÃO CATARINA EM BALI

MATÉRIA EM INGLÊS SOBRE OS AFETADOS SOBRE MUDANÇAS CLIMÁTICAS NO MUNDO, INCLUSIVE DO FURACÃO CATARINA


voices from communities


affected by climate change
friends of the earth international
november 2007
12°s, 77°w “Somany lost their crops … almost all the families were affected. All the crops, almost all, were damaged in Quebrada
Honda. The crops of native potato, beans, olluco, oca,mashua [types of tubers],most of which are for our own
consumption, are hoped to recover once it rains, so we will have at least some of the seeds of our labour.”
Eulogio Capitan Coleto, age 63, president, Environment Committee, Vicos community, department of Ancash, Peru.
2 | climate change: the testimonies
friends of the earth international secretariat P.O. Box 19199, 1000 GD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Tel: 31 20 622 1369 Fax: 31 20 639 2181 E-mail: info@foei.org website www.foei.org
These and additional testimonies are on-line at www.foei.org/en/campaigns/climate
climate
change
voices from communities
affected by climate change
friends of the earth international
november 2007
introduction voices fromcommunities affected by climate change 3
australia fire and water 4
brazil learning to expect the unexpected 8
honduras planetary fever jeopardises human health 11
malaysia rising to the challenge 16
mali a dry land confronts a warming world 20
peru high climate risk in a land of extremes 24
swaziland facing the heat 28
tuvalu islanders lose ground to rising seas 32
united kingdomtides of change threaten historic town 35
Front cover:Eulogio Capitan Coleto holding potato affected by fungus, Vicos, Peru, 2007 © Asociación Civil Labor/FoE Peru
friends of the earth international Friends of the Earth International is the world’s largest grassroots environmental network, uniting 70 diverse national
member groups and some 5,000 local activist groups on every continent.With over 2millionmembers and supporters around the world, we campaign
on today’smost urgent environmental and social issues. Our vision is of a peaceful and sustainable world based on societies living in harmony with
nature.We envision a society of interdependent people living in dignity, wholeness and fulfilment in which equity and human and peoples’ rights are
realized. This will be a society built upon peoples’ sovereignty and participation. It will be founded on social, economic, gender and environmental justice
and free fromall forms of domination and exploitation, such as neoliberalism, corporate globalization, neo-colonialismandmilitarism.We believe that
our children’s future will be better because of what we do.
climate change: the testimonies | 3
In the face of such pressing realities, the challenges are even greater. It is amatter of record
that the peoples of the global South and Indigenous Peoples worldwide aremost vulnerable
to climate change. This is because their livelihoods are intimately tied to the land and water,
to the diversity of their ecosystems and to their traditional knowledge about these resources.
These foundations of their existence are now severely threatened by the climate crisis.
But what about their voices? They are rarely heard. This is despite the higher risk these
peoples face, and despite an abundance of information, research reports and TV programs on
climate change, which was recently even the subject of a Nobel Prize. Friends of the Earth
International is therefore publishing this report, to give voice to the peoples at the front lines
of climate change, and to reveal the perspectives of those who live out this reality.
The report includes nine stories fromdifferent countries around the world. These case studies
chronicle specific impacts, and provide testimonies of local communitymembers who have
dramatic first-hand experience of devastating climate events. They also describe their
perceptions of the various challenges faced by policymakers, decisionmakers, and even the
local populations themselves.
In this report, Indigenous Peoples, local authorities, small-hold farmers, and small-scale fisher
peoples speak out—all the way fromHonduras, Peru and Brazil toMali and Swaziland, from
the United Kingdomto Australia,Malaysia and Tuvalu. The voices of these women andmen
express strategies they have invented to try to adapt to the transformations climate change
has imposed on their territories, lifestyles and ecosystems. Their statements are forceful,
sharp and conclusive, and reveal their skepticismofmeasures being taken by their own
government institutions and the international community.
Knowledge of their natural surroundings leadsmany of these peoples to wisely conclude that
the only way to adapt is to reclaim, restore and promote their traditional, ancestral ways of
life, while distancing and differentiating themselves fromthe conventional proposals which
they question. Themotivations of these peoples are shared: they want to protect their
livelihoods and their communities. Themany solutions they seek include ecological
agriculture, traditionalmedicine, sustainable soil and watermanagement, the construction of
decent housing, and affordable alternative energies. However, they also know their efforts will
be insufficient on their own; local communities also recognize the decisive need for a
profound transformation.
This drives home the imperative of a global, diverse and effectivemovement that will halt
climate change and assure climate justice, by fostering initiatives that counterbalance the
vulnerability of such communities. Herein lays the challenge—and the commitment of
Friends of the Earth International.
Building such amovement requires us to challenge the prevailing political and economic
systemthat drives climate change and unsustainable production and consumption. It implies
championing secure and sovereign energy supplies that will drastically cut unsustainable and
fossil-fuel energy consumption, and put a halt to their financing. It also implies fostering
alternative renewable energy sources that promote eco-efficiency and eco-sufficiency, and are
consistent with sovereignty and a fair and equitable transition. It requires pursuing effective
regional,municipal and local regimes that foster climate justice.
This publication is a contribution and an appeal to the environmentalmovement to join
forces with other socialmovements, to work united in building solutions to the climate crisis.
This is our challenge; this is our chosen path.
introduction
voices from communities
affected by climate change
introduction Tatiana Roa Avendaño,
CENSAT Agua Viva/Friends of the Earth Colombia
The upheaval caused by climatic change is
approaching the scale of that caused by
armed conflict. A recent United Nations
report shows that more people are being
displaced in the world today as a result of
environmental problems than because of
conflict, and many of them are climate
refugees. Climate change is no longer a
potential threat. It is now an established
reality of life on our planet.
Bangladesh is being flooded by the sea, and
there are real fears it will lose a large part of its
territory. The populations of several towns
there have already been forced tomove due to
flooding. In the Pacific islands, the sea level will
rise enough to inundate whole islands, forcing
local populations to leave their homelands
forever. Glaciers aremelting in the Andean
nations of South America and Himalayan
countries of Asia, regions where entire
communities base their agriculture and water
supplies on sources fromeverlastingmountain
snows. This puts themon a path to extinction.
While some regions are suffering fromfloods,
others are experiencing severe drought and
increasing desertification, all of which is
fosteringmore hunger, thirst, disease and
displacement. The climate crisis facing the
planet today has already caused irreversible
damage tomany ecosystems; these impacts
will only becomemore severe, intensifying
social and economical conflicts.
With every passing second, climate change is
exposing the fragility of the prevailing economic
system,which imposes limitless demands on
nature’s bounty and relies on fossil fuels such as
oil and coal, themain source of greenhouse gas
emissions. Unfettered over-consumption in the
North is themain cause of climate change; it is
urgent that this consumption be reduced,
despite the fact that this challenge is cynically
neglected.While it is clear that it will be
impossible to reduce consumption and demand
unlesswe simultaneously cut back on
production and supply, the interests of powerful
automobile, oil,mining and,more recently,
agrofuel corporations still prevail over all
solutions to climate change.
friends of the earth international www.foei.org
australia 35°s, 149°e
fire and water
authors Polly Buchhorn & Stephanie Long,
Friends of the Earth Australia
with collaboration fromOxfamAustralia
Droughts and bushfires have been persistent threats throughout Australia’s 200 years of
European settlement. Nowa seven-year drought, punctuatedwith extreme bushfires, is
exposing the nation’s vulnerability to climate change. Australia is awealthy, resource-rich
countrywith the ability to adapt; but it is also theworld’s driest inhabited continent,with
ecosystems that are highly vulnerable to climatic change. Although recent events have
crystallized public awareness of the climate threat, Australians remain the industrialised
world’s highest per capita emitters of greenhouse gases, and their Federal Government
continues to undermine international efforts to curb emissions.
impacts
“The fire came out of the drought: The drought put people on edge, especially
fire fighters and farmers. The blaze came so early in the fire season — people
knew straight away it was serious.”
Hanna Rubenach, 29-year-old volunteer fire fighter, student and disability support worker.
a hotter future: Though Australia is already a hot, dry continent, climate change is
expected tomake it hotter still, with average temperatures likely to increase by up to
1.3°C by 2020, and 6.7 °C by 2080, according to the UN Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC).1 Reduced rainfall andmore evaporationmean that “water
security problems are projected to intensify by 2030 in southern and eastern Australia,”
according to the IPCC.
These changes will create problems for agriculture. Fruit and nut crops will suffer due to
lack of required winter chilling; grain quality will decline due to heat shock; livestock will
experiencemore heat stress, and productive pasture will be lost. Forestry production will
also drop inmany parts of the country.
Cities and towns where Australians live, generally concentrated near the coast, will be
affected by sea-level rise and storms and, in the North, bymore intense cyclones. Heatrelated
deaths in Australia’smajor urban centres are expected to become five times
more frequent by 2050.
unique life at risk: Also at risk are Australia’s plant and animal species,many of which
are found nowhere else in the world. Even small temperature increases could lead to
extinctions. For example, Great Barrier Reef tourismgenerates about USD 4.5 billion per
year, and provides about 63,000 jobs. Yet in coming decades warming oceans could send
the reef’s corals into serious decline.
a drought that defies memory
the fingerprint of climate change? Although the current federal leadership has sought to
minimise the climate change threat, Australians are already grappling with a hotter, drier
reality. Since the late 1800s, droughts of one to nine years’duration have been known, but
now the climate is hotter, and in southern and eastern Australia, it is also drier. These
changes have set the stage for one of themost damaging droughts in Australian recorded
history. In 2001 a state of drought was declared inmost areas of New SouthWales,
Victoria and Queensland. Though 2007 winter rains brought some relief, experts warned
in September, 2007 that Australia remains in the drought’s grip, with no end in sight.2
Polly Buchhorn, 45-year-old father of
three from Scamander, state of Tasmania.
on december 2006 bushfires: Living out in
the Australian bush and knowing a bit about
its bushfires, I had thought of the worst case:
That the drought had dried the eucalyptus
forests all around our community so that, if
ignited on a day of extreme fire weather, they
could literally explode, an uncontrollable
inferno that could destroy farms, homes,
animals and perhaps people. But I never
really thought it would happen.
When it did happen the bushfire brought my
community to its knees, for a time.My family
and I were lucky.We lost some fences, but
others lost their homes. The roads and town
water supply were cut, electricity lines were
burnt down and the phones, radio and
television were dead. Later one young fire
fighter lost his life.
a fortunate community: Shocked, I expected
the phone, electricity, roads and water to be
out for weeks. Yet just two days later the
lights, fridge and phone all worked and the
road was reopened.
on a fiery future with climate change: Even if
this bushfire wasn’t attributable to climate
change, it was just what was expected for
my community in decades to come:more
drought, extreme weather and bushfires.
I knewthat we, inwell-off Australia,were
expected to copewith such consequences of
climate change relativelywell. Thatmillions of
people in theworld haven’t the capacity to
recover fromsuch damage in two days—let
alone having electricity,water and telephones
and cars in every home—put a different light
on the devastation and traumawe faced.
I was unsettled by the flood of emergency
aid that followed …We Australians like to
share a cold beer fromthe fridge after a
tough day, but after beating this bushfire it
didn’t quite taste right.
There has been a really good thing to come
fromthis bushfire:my community has
becomemore resilient, and thoughtful.
february 2005, King tides, Funafuti, Tuvalu © gary braasch
4 | climate change: the testimonies
Bushfires in Scamander, Australia, December 2006 © Polly Buchhorn
reservoir levels drop: In cities, water shortages are amajor issue. Reservoir levels have
hovered at alarmingly low levels in recent years—around a fifth of capacity inmajor
cities including Brisbane, Sydney,Melbourne and Adelaide. Despite recent rains, cities
likeMelbourne aremaintaining stringent water restrictions to ensure water storage
levels improve. Adelaide currently faces the possibility of running out of water by the
summer of 2008-09 due to lack of winter rain in 2007.
mighty rivers at risk: TheMurray and Darling Rivers are part of Australia’s largest
drainage basin, home to about 70 percent of the country’s irrigated agriculture andmore
than half of its food production. Yet in December 2006, less water flowed into the
Murray River than at any time in the past century, leaving irrigators with amajor water
deficit and compromising the river’s ecological health.
farmers hit hard: TheMurray-Darling’s poor state has had amajor impact on agriculture. In
March 2007, a government bureau stated that “Severe drought across southern and central
Australia is projected to reduce farmincomes in 2006-07 to their lowest level in over thirty
years.”3 Another extremely bad drought year, in 2002-3, slashed Australia’s economic growth
by about AUD 6.6 billion. Total rural employment fell by almost 80,000 jobs between 2001
and 2005.4 Behind these statistics is the human face of the drought. Farmers have been
forced to shoot livestock rather than let animals starve. Crop failures havemeant the loss of
family farms held for generations, despite government drought assistance.
unusually ferocious bushfires
Bushfires are a seasonal threat in Australia, but in 2006, the season began in October—
an unusually early start. As temperatures spiked and wind speeds rose, bushfires were
ignited in New SouthWales. By December, fires also raged across Victoria and Tasmania.
The fires continued formore than twomonths, compelling up to 3,000 fire fighters to
work daily to tame blazes that often proved uncontrollable.
Fire fighters spoke of severe fire behaviour they couldn’t explain or deal with, of “megafires”
moving at extreme speed, coveringmany kilometres in every direction, with
towering flames and intense heat. The longest-burning fire, in Gippsland, Victoria, took
more than 19,000 fire fighters 69 days to contain, and razedmore than onemillion
hectares of public forests and alpine areas.
Nor can Australians be complacent about the future: the frequency of very high and
extreme fire danger days is likely to increase by up to 25 percent by 2020, and 70 percent
by 2050, across south-eastern Australia, according to the IPCC.
on the front lines of climate change: aboriginal australians
particularly vulnerable: Aboriginal peoples are among Australia’smost vulnerable to climate
change.5More than 100,000 live in remote communities,many of which lack adequate
infrastructure, health services and employment—disadvantages that may restrict their
ability to cope with climate hazards, according to the IPCC. Direct impacts include heat
stress, loss of traditional food sources, andmore food- and water-borne illnesses.
JuliaWeston and Frank Giles,
farmers of blueberries, cherries and cattle,
from Seaview Farm near St Marys,
state of Tasmania.
drought torture: Rainfall records have been
kept here at Seaview Farmsince 1929.We
expect 40 inches of rain a year, but last year
we received just 16 inches, the lowest by far,
ever. Day by day it got drier and drier, it was
relentless. Everyone’s pastures, crops,
livestock and streams shrivelled; old-timers
said the creeks had never dried up, but we
had barely enough water in the creek to keep
our cherry orchard alive.We’d already lost
the crop to frost.
Then the bushfire came withmore extreme
weather.We’re pretty safe at the house.We
had to fight to protect our young blueberries
but we were cut off fromour cherry orchard.
Some big farms nearby are sceptical about
climate change’s role and future threat.We’re
worried erratic weather can upset things in
somany ways we can’t plan for. Our
blueberriesmight not get enough winter
chilling, will there be water for irrigation, how
muchmore fodder should we keep on hand?
reacclimatising farming practices: A fewyears
agowe started amove to “biological farming”
practices using non-chemical fertilisers and
rebuilding soil ecology to restore natural
systems. Andwe’ve beenmaking bio–diesel
to run the irrigation pump and tractor.
After the bushfire, the drought’s impact
persisted and forced our neighbour to sell off
a lot of his livestock. But our animals and
pastures were in good condition, and we
started buyingmore animals. People came
and shook their heads, but we’re certain,
after the drought, we came out of it so well
because of our switch to biological farming.
If we are going to be affected by climate
change in the future we’ll have to find new
ways of farming. Conventional “big” farming
might turn a lot of farmland into a dust bowl.
With an uncertain climate we need to be
flexible and diversify our farming, and learn
to farmwith nature, rather than fight it.
climate change: friends of the earth international www.foei.org the testimonies | 5
“We expect 40 inches of rain a year, but last year we received just 16 inches,
the lowest by far, ever. Day by day it got drier and drier, it was relentless.
Everyone’s pastures, crops, livestock and streams shrivelled; old-timers said
the creeks had never dried up, but we had barely enough water in the creek
to keep our cherry orchard alive … Then the bushfire came.”
Julia Weston and Frank Giles, farmers, Seaview Farm, near St Marys, Tasmania.
JuliaWeston and Frank Giles, Australia, 2007 © Polly Buchhorn
Most Aboriginal Australians live in the country’s north, often in low-lying tropical areas
vulnerable to stormsurges and floods—events expected to be on the rise as the planet
warms. Sea level rise of one or twometreswouldwipe out dozens of populated homelands
and islands, particularly those in the Gulf of Carpentaria and adjacent Torres Strait.
torres strait islanders: The Torres Strait Islands, scattered across 22,000 square kilometres
between Australia and Papua NewGuinea, are home tomore than eight thousand people.
Many live onlymetres fromthe beach, sometimes less than onemetre above sea level.
In early 2006, high tides, strongwinds and heavy rain caused severe damage to half the
region’s inhabited islands. Homeswere damaged, sewage systems flooded and belongings
lost. Islanders report such events as increasingly common. The Yorke Island chairperson,Mr
DonaldMosby, is in no doubt that globalwarming is to blame. “You don’t have to be a
scientist,”he said, “not when you seemetres of beach disappearing everyweek.”
losing control of their country: Climate change damage to traditional homelands will
also affect Aboriginal people indirectly. According to one expert, “Indigenous people
don't see the land as distinct fromthemselves in the same way asmaybe society in the
south-east (of Australia) would. If they feel that the ecosystemhas changed it’s amental
anxiety to them. They feel like they've lost control of their “country”—they're
responsible for looking after it.”6
adaptation
headed in the wrong direction: Themost fundamental step toward dealing with climate
change is to stop fuelling the problem. Yet Australia’s energy emissions are soaring. Coal
power supplies about 85 percent of our electricity, and Australia remains the world’s
biggest coal exporter. Captive to fossil fuel industry interests, the current federal
government has refused to ratify the Kyoto Protocol, and has generally obstructed
meaningful international progress.
On amore positive note, climate change is now firmly fixed on the public radar. A
convergence of events including the drought, the filmThe Inconvenient Truth, and the
Stern Review have given climate change a high profile.With a national election due in
late 2007, politicians are full of climate change pronouncements and international
posturing. Bids for emissions cuts are slowly rising, and there is hope for policies that
would recognise and accept climate refugees.
will farmers find relief? Despite billions of dollars spent on drought relief,many farmers
have faced bankruptcy and loss of their farmland. Authorities say climate change will
create both winners and losers, and that there are ways agriculture could adapt (new
crop varieties, new farmpractices, and shifting cropping to wetter regions). However,
these changes will require investment andmajormanagement changes for farmers.
water solutions trickle in: Debates about buildingmore dams, water recycling and
energy-intensive desalination plants regularlymake headlines.Many urban Australians
have been forced to embrace water-savingmeasures never required before.More people
are installing rainwater tanks, thanks to government rebates. In future, stormwater
capture and recycling could play amajor role in urban water supply. A new national
water plan is attempting to grapple with the Australia’s over-allocated water supply and
conflicting user demands, however, water use in Australia is still far fromsustainable.
6 | climate change: the testimonies
Hanna Rubenach, 29-year-old
volunteer fire fighter, student
and disability support worker.
on fighting local 2006 bushfires: The fire
came out of the drought: The drought put
people on edge, especially fire fighters and
farmers. The blaze came so early in the fire
season – people knew straight away it was
serious. Air humidity of 15 percent is bad,
but it got well below 10 percent and the
wind was very strong.We were powerless in
the face the fires’ speed, size and ferocity;
the community wasn’t ready for this.
People were shocked, and angry. Angry
towards the extreme bushfire conditions
that caused somuch loss and fear. And angry
for the cuts to services that took some time
to rebuild. The fire burnt powerlines and
telephone lines, the radio, television and
mobile phone transmission towers, and
blocked roads with fallen trees and rocks.
Fromall over an enormous community spirit
and generosity came to. Letters fromother
volunteer fire brigades gavemy exhausted
brigade a boost. Fromacross all of Tasmania
and Australia came donations and support
that lifted people up again.
responding to climate change: That drought
is expected with climate change, people here
know. Still sixmonths fromthe next summer
people are already thinking about protecting
themselves frombushfire. They are conscious
of climate changemeaningmore drought
and extreme weather, but aremainly
concerned for local needs and personal
protection. I know about the global aspects
of the problemof climate change. But I don’t
know how tomake themmore aware of the
links with the drought and fire and the wider
implications it has for how we live here.
australia 35°s, 149°e
Bushfires in Scamander, Australia, December 2006 © Kim Imber
coastal concerns: Australia’s coastal population is large and growing, and the threat of
future sea level rise to homes, roads and other infrastructure is now being taken
seriously. Local councils and planning authorities have begun to take planning and
regulationmeasures, crucial steps if continued rates of coastal development are to be
sustainable, according to the IPCC.
ecosystems pushed to limits: Some of Australia’smost celebrated natural wonders have
little or no potential to adapt to climate change. TheWet Tropics and upland rain forests,
the alpine snow country, and the Great Barrier Reef are faced with a rapidly changing
climate. Yet the species that make up these ecosystems simply have nowhere to go, or
cannot migrate quickly enough.
conclusion
A dry, hot country with a history of drought and bushfires, Australia has been described
as a portal into the world’s future with climate change.While we cannot be certain that
climate change is behind the current drought, there is no doubt about the threat posed
by a hotter future. Though wider Australian society has the resources to adapt,many
among its Aboriginal population are not so fortunate. Furthermore, even low levels of
climate change have the potential to alter the country’s landscape and wipe out unique
forms of life. Sincemuch will depend on collective international efforts to reduce
emissions, Australiansmust continue to press for change fromtheir federal leaders,
who have so far resisted any binding emissions cuts at home.
1 Relative to 1990 temperatures; refers to areas 800 kmfrom
the coast; central Australian increases are expected to be
greater. (IPCC, 2007, www.ipcc-wg2.org, p. 515).
2 ABC News, Thursday September 6, 2007, National drought
expected to continue, experts say.
3 Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics; see
www.abareconomics.com/publications_html/economy/econo
my_07/fsr_07.pdf.
4 ABARE Australian Commodities Statistics 2005, p. 25.
5 A.McMicheal et al. (2002); see
www.health.gov.au/pubhlth/strateg/envhlth/climate/
6 Dr Donna Green, “Climate Change and Health: Impacts on
Remote Indigenous Communities in Northern Australia”.
CSIRO, 2006.”
sources
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.
Contribution ofWorking Group II to the Fourth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
www.ipcc-wg2.org/
Friends of the Earth Australia
www.foe.org.au/
This and additional testimonies are on-line at
www.foei.org/en/campaigns/climate
climate change: friends of the earth international www.foei.org the testimonies | 7
Desert rainbow,Western New SouthWales, Australia, January 2007 © Stephanie Long
brazil15°s, 47°w
learning to expect
the unexpected
author Carolina Herrmann Coelho de Souza,
Friends of the Earth Brazil
translation AnneWilson
with collaboration fromCaroline Gatt, Daniele
Sallaberry, Lúcia Ortiz, and the Southern Santa
CatarinaMunicipalities Association
In 2004, southern Brazilianswere stunned by the region’s first recorded hurricane.
Was it triggered by climate change? The answer is still debated, but one thing is certain.
Hurricane Catarina served up a harsh and unmistakablewarning of the risks of a distorted
andmore extreme climate. Standing in theway of dealingwith this threat are numerous
barriers: political, institutional and technological aswell as financial. To address these
barriers, a forumandworkshopswere held, to interweave the hard lessons of Hurricane
Catarinawith hopeful prescriptions for theway forward.
impacts
“The researchers are considering two possibilities: either this
[Hurricane Catarina] is a rare event that only occurs sporadically,
or it is an early sign of the climate changes the earth will suffer because
of the pollution produced by humans.”
CarlosNobre, scientist at the Centre forWeather Forecasting and Climate Studies, Brazilian Institute for Space Research1.
out of the blue—hurricane catarina: In our newera of rapid climate change, tropical
storms are likely to bemore intense. This feature of awarmingworld revealed itself to
southern Brazilianswhen the South Atlantic Ocean spawned its first recorded hurricane late
inMarch, 2004. The rare and unexpected event,which brought winds of up to 180 km/h,
is known by the name of the state it devastated: Santa Catarina, in Brazil’s south.
Hurricane Catarinamade landfall on the evening ofMarch 27. By the time it had cut its
destructive swathe through the unsuspecting and unprepared states of Santa Catarina
and Rio Grande do Sul, four people were killed and seven fishermen had disappeared at
sea. Property destruction was severe, with 40,000 homes damaged. Farmers lost 90
percent of the corn crop, 70 percent of the banana crop and 25 percent of the rice crop.
Even children’s education went into limbo as 80 percent of schools were forced to close
for two weeks. Damages totalledmore than USD 470million (BRL 1 billion).
wider climate impacts: The latest research, fromthe world’s top scientists on the UN
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), tells us that temperatures across the
Latin American region will generally increase, while water in soils will decrease. Eastern
Amazonia is expected to dry out, with tropical forest replaced by savanna, and semi-arid
zones becoming arid. Farmers in dryer areas can expect their land to turn to desert and
be impacted by salinisation (increased soil saltiness). Thismeans farmers won’t be able
to produce asmuch of some important crops and livestock. Scientists also warn that
another hurricane like Catarina could happen in the South Atlantic.
These are the broad-brush changes. As for the details, considerable uncertainty remains
in terms of exactly how climate change impacts will play out in Santa Catarina and other
parts of Brazil. A lack of systems to observe andmonitor climatic change contributes to
this uncertainty, and complicates people’s ability to adapt.
Terezinha da Rocha Quirino,
Araranguá, Santa Catarina.
on hurricane catarina: It was terrible not
knowing why the wind was so strong.We
were working in the fields the whole day so
we didn’t have time to listen to the radio or
watch TV.When we got home that night the
national newsmade it sound like there
wasn’t any danger…
Two trees fell onto our roof, and we ran to
our neighbour’s.When the wind stopped
[the eye of the hurricane], we went back to
our house to get blankets and jackets. The
wind came back and blew the tree that was
on the roof onto our car and killedmy
husband, and I hurt my spleen. I didn’t see
anything after that because I fainted.
on uncertainty: Just knowing that a strong
wind is coming I get terrified. I aminsecure
and don’t know what to do.
I beg the government not to talkwith the
community onlywhen it is election time.
There are a lot of people that don't have radio,
telephone or internet. There are a lot of isolated
places in theworldwith lack of information.
Tadeu Santos from Araranguá, Santa
Catarina, a 55-year-old environmentalist.
on actions to address climate change: I lodge
complaints in the region about CO2 (carbon
dioxide) emissions fromthe coal-fired power
plants, yet the government still wants to
install new ones. In each document we
produce, we conclude by highlighting the
dangers of global warming, CO2 emissions
and the greenhouse effect.We believe that
this is a formof environmental education.
Not just environmental education for
children, but to change thementality of our
politicians too. Today, in fact, I amgoing to a
public hearing to pressure the government
to reduce CO2 emissions and coal use.
Tadeu Santos, Araranguá, Brazil, November 2006 © Carolina Herrmann Coelho de Souza
8 | climate change: the testimonies
Iene Gonçalves da Silva, Araranguá, Santa Catarina, Brazil, November 2006 © Carolina Herrmann Coelho de Souza
adaptation
Those who lived through Hurricane Catarinamaintain that uncertainty was the worst
outcome: uncertainty about new climate catastrophes and how to deal with them.
This is further compounded by poverty, which leaves a shortfall in the financial resources
and expertise needed to deal with climate change.
Furthermore, climate change will only work to exacerbate the poverty and vulnerability
of themost exposed populations.Womenmay bemore likely to bear the brunt of
climate change impacts, due to the nature of their work, their role as caregivers, or if
their domestic role puts themout of touch with disaster warnings, for example.
regional forums for change: To adapt to climate change, people need the appropriate political,
institutional and technological frameworks. To this end, a forumcalled the FirstMeeting of
the Southern Region onNatural Phenomena, Adversities and Climate Changewas held in
April 2005 in Araranguá, Santa Catarina. Its 700 attendees came together to debate and
clarify the causes and impacts of climate change, and themeasures needed to adapt.
Attendeeswere also asked to “take”themeeting to their local communities. This in turn led
to a series of localworkshops; and ultimately to amanifesto for high-level action (see below).
A second such regional climate change forumis planned for the end of 2007.
workshops lay local foundations: Following on fromthe above regionalmeeting, Climate
Change AdaptationWorkshops were held during September and October of 2005 in six
cities in Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul. The workshops addressed issues including
floods, agriculture and drought, natural disasters, human health, ecosystems and
biodiversity. Held in the areas affected by the hurricane, they were attended by 150
people, including professors, public agencies, private companies, civil defence personnel,
firemen, NGO staff, and others fromthe public and private sector. They produced a list of
demands and tasks for local governments in Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul.
• emergency planning and disaster prevention: To address the rise in extreme weather
events, local authoritiesmust bolster essential services such as health care and
emergency services. This includes recognizing high-risk zones, creating proper
monitoring and warning systems, and planning community refuges, evacuation
procedures, and emergency food distribution. Long-termplanningmust ensure new
residential areas are located away fromrivers, lakes and seafronts.
• environmental education: Individuals and governmentsmust bemade aware
of the causes, consequences and impacts of climate change.
• environmental preservation: Environmental preservation and sustainable resource
use will help reduce climate change impacts by protecting localmicroclimates.
Key solutions include conscientious consumerism, recycling, protecting native
vegetation, prohibiting forest fires and deforestation, de-centralization of raw
materials, and switching to renewable energy.
Luis IsmaeldeCarmargoLeme, 44
year-old farmer fromAraranguá, Santa Catarina.
on the hurricane: Hurricane Catarinawas a
marker for us. There is before the hurricane
and after the hurricane. … Lots of animals died,
many birds,monkeys,wild animals and
vegetation suffered badly. The annual crops at
that time, likemanioc, corn and ricewere
badly affected and people couldn’t harvest
them. The salt that rained downmore strongly
in some parts affected some of the crops
before it could bewashed out of the soil. The
greenhouses and siloswere also damaged,
and the stored grainwas lost as silos fell over.
on reducing climate impacts: To reduce the
impact on farmers you can diversify your crops.
If a farmer has a little bit of each thing, plants
one thing at a certain time of the year,
something else at another time, if there is a
problemitwill only affectwhat is planted at the
time, and he can plant other things later on. The
more the farmers diversify, the less risk they run.
Thatway they don’t lose everything. There are
types of crops that handle badweather better.
Luis Ismael de Carmargo Leme, Araranguá, Brazil, November 2006 © Carolina Herrmann Coelho de Souza
Ernany Palma Ribeiro Filho of
Araranguá, Santa Catarina, a 51-year-old
lawyer and civil defense coordinator
on climate change risks: I’mconcerned about
water, I live in a regionwhere there’s a lack of
water. The neighbouringmunicipalities don’t
have anywhere to get water from. Today you
can’t rely on the river, because the littlewater
in it is contaminated, particularly by pesticides,
herbicides and fertilizers. In Araranguáwe
have a lagoon systemand a phreatic [ground
water] sheet which is good in theory, because
thewater needs to be treated. Seventy five
percent of the ponteiras [a type ofwaterwell]
were found to have illegally high levels of
suspended aluminum[which can be toxic].
Ernany Palma Ribeiro Filho, Araranguá, Brazil,November 2006©Carolina Herrmann Coelho de Souza
climate change: friends of the earth international www.foei.org the testimonies | 9
“We heard a sound like an explosion and we tried to open the door but couldn’t.
In the morning I saw that the house next door didn’t have a roof anymore.
Looking around it was just walls … terrifying ... that’s climate change for you.”
Tânia Guimarães, 43-year-old Manager, Tourism Department, Balneário Arroio do Silva, Santa Catarina.
• sustainable agriculture: Protecting the soil will help combat climate change and
preserve it for future generations. To do this, changes in the agricultural-economic
model will be needed, along with permaculture techniques,more diverse crop
rotation, composting and promoting local products for local use.
• efficient use of water: Climate change will exacerbate current water shortages.
To deal with this challenge, it’s important to avoid wasting water; and to install
rainwater storage tanks and treat and recycle sewerage. It’s also important to take
steps to reduce pollution, and protect the physical environment of rivers through
improved and integratedmanagement.
• family planning: Looking at deeper root causes, the workshops cited family planning
as being essential to help stemthe global population growth which is draining
the planet’s resources.
a manifesto for high-level action: An important result of the workshops was amanifesto
of demands for the Brazilian Government, as well as for governments of developed
countries. The demands include phasing out coal-power plants, adopting energy
efficiency and clean, renewable energy technology, and putting an end to deforestation
and forest burning.
conclusion
Hurricane Catarina demonstrated that southern Brazilians do not have the luxury of a
“wait and see” attitude toward climate change. This unprecedented stormalso drew a
line under the threat of less acute but equally serious climatic changes already underway.
The first steps toward tackling climate change highlight the need to address awide range
of human and environmental factors. Ifwe fail, our legacywill bemore “Catarinas”,whether
arriving at hurricane speed or as slow-motion disasters. But ifwe succeed,wewill not only
address climate change,wewill also put in place the fundamental building blocks of amore
sustainable future. Andwewill leave a safer,more hospitable future to our children.
1 Centro de Previsão de Tempo e Estudos Climáticos, Instituto
Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais.
sources
Friends of the Earth Brazil.
www.natbrasil.org.br
UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007)
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability;
Summary for Policymakers.
www.ipcc.ch/SPM13apr07.pdf
NASA. Hurricane Catarina Hits Brazil.
earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?
img_id=16505
This and additional testimonies are on-line at
www.foei.org/en/campaigns/climate
Djalma SantosNile, a 42-year-oldmilitary
fire fighter fromAraranguá, Santa Catarina.
on climatic changes:Wemonitored the water
along the coastline and verified that it was
quite hot last summer. You can notice that in
the last few years we’ve hadmore droughts,
we’ve been shocked by the lack of rain.
on hurricane catarina’s effects:Many things
have affected us since Hurricane Catarina. As
a citizen and as an emergency servicesworker,
I’mmore apprehensive about hurricanes. How
will the community handle it? It’s one thing to
experience a hurricanewithout knowing
what it was, aswe’d never had one before, but
it’s quite different when the threat continues.
Previously, hurricanes didn’t exist in the South
Atlantic, but nowthat we knowwhat they’re
like andwe could suddenly be surprised by
something similar, howwill our community
react? This changes people’s lives significantly.
Due to lack of clarification, every time there’s
a strongwind people start calling us, and
children areworrying aboutmeteorology.
When therewas a tornado in the town of
Passo de Torres, therewere peoplewho had
lived through the hurricanewho hid in their
wardrobes for four hours, even though the
wind passed through in just fiveminutes.
Our community has really been affected
psychologically.We need some formof
monitoring – we don’t have ameteorological
station. Still today looking around you can
tell which houses were hit by the hurricane.
on preparedness: The emergency services are
a littlemore prepared for another hurricane,
because we didn’t have a clue before. But this
preparation has to reach the community.
Djalma Santos Nile, Araranguá, Brazil, November 2006 © Carolina Herrmann Coelho de Souza
10 | climate change: the testimonies
brazil15°s, 47°w
Left: the First Meeting of the Southern Region on Natural
Phenomena, Adversities and Climate Change, Araranguá,
Brazil, April 2005. Right: Adaptationworkshop, Sombrio, Brazil,
September 2005 © Carolina Herrmann Coelho De Souza
honduras 14°n, 87°w
planetary fever jeopardises
human health
author Dr. Juan Almendares,
MovimientoMadre Tierra/Friends of the Earth Honduras
Mitch, thewestern hemisphere’smost deadly hurricane in two centuries, demonstrates
Hondurans’ extreme vulnerability to climatic change. Stalling over Central America for
three days, the 1998 hurricane directly affected about half of Honduras’s sixmillion people
and decimated infrastructure and agriculture.Mitch also dealt an enduring blowto
Hondurans’health. This effect went beyond the thousands of fatalities and injuries directly
caused by the storm, beyond its destruction ofwater, sanitation and health infrastructure.
Ultimately,Mitch left Hondurans vulnerable to exploitation by large corporate interests,
resulting in structural changes that will affect Hondurans’health andwell being for
decades. The Honduran experience is awarning to Central American countries of themajor
societal shockwaves that can followextremeweather events such asMitch—events
expected to intensifywith climate change.
impacts
“There are a greater number of illnesses. The heat is unbearable, there are
skin problems, dehydration, headaches. There is a lower quality of life.
The percentage of poverty is rising, there is less to eat because we don’t have
anywhere to plant food.”
Candida RosaMaradiaga, 69-year-old single mother, Tegucigalpa.
a stormy future: Central American nations including Honduras are vulnerable to extreme
weather events, which occasionallymagnify into full-scale disasters. The latest UN IPCC
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) research notes that, already, “In Latin
America there is ample evidence of increases in extreme climatic events and climate
change.”What’smore, the IPCC expects the frequency of weather and climate extremes
to increase in this region. Additionalmajor climate impacts for Central America include
warming of asmuch as 6.6 °C by 20801 andmore frequent dry extremes in all seasons.
extreme weather, unprecedented consequences: HurricaneMitch set some Central
American countries back decades in terms of their health services. In Honduras, the
death toll has been estimated at roughly 7,000, and a total of 123 health installations
were damaged. In the capital Tegucigalpa, a third of buildings were damaged, while
around the country 60-70 percent of transport infrastructure was destroyed. Up to one
quarter of the population was left homeless. The government estimated it would take at
least 40 years to recover, and that the reconstruction bill will top $5 billion. Adding insult
to injury, flooding followed in 1999, drought in 2000, and HurricaneMichelle in 2001.
mitch’s shockwaves continue: Yet the hurricane’s devastation also set in chain a series
of social, political and economic crises that have locked the nation into a chronic state
of emergency, and caused enduring damage to Hondurans’ health and well being.
Severalmultinationals took advantage of the economic and social upheaval following
Mitch. Neoliberal economic policies, external debt and ecological debt further
contributed to the crisis.
Maritza Arévalo Amador,
a 58-year-old single mother of five,
Flor #1 neighbourhood, Tegucigalpa.
on environmental changes: There’s been
a change in the climate and in the seasons,
because before you knew when it was winter
or summer. But human beings havemade
these changes with deforestation, cutting
down trees. That has been the worst for our
environment, since the deforestation has
caused the lack of water in our communities
or our country.
on the impacts of these changes: The impacts
that we have received fromthese changes
are: hot weather,many skin illnesses in
people … lack ofwater and the pollution of the
environment. The destruction of our soil, as
well as themining exploitation in our country
that pollutes the air, thewater and human
beings. Also the children and old people suffer
fromskin and lung problems.
on working for change: I have had a lot of
experience inmy life because we have
fought for the environment. The struggles
have been hard,mainly in the communities
where I work planting trees ...We work to
improve the environment with talks about
environmental health ... You have to plant
trees to “breathe” a better environment. Also
we have learned to recycle garbage.We
prepare compost for our gardens that we
have in our homes.We classify the garbage,
and use the waste for organic compost, and
in that way we have changed our way of life.
mymessage to other communities affected
by climate change: First, organize; second,
fight for just causes; third, have thewill and
spirit towork; fourth, educate yourself and
have a vision for the future of our
grandchildren, great-grandchildren and greatgreat-
grandchildren, so that in the future they
arewell educated, and so that they can have a
better environment and a better country.
Maritza Arévalo Amador © Candy Baiza
climate change: friends of the earth international www.foei.org the testimonies | 11
mining industry digs in: In 1996-97, foreignmining companies were granted
concessions tomore than 30 percent of Honduran national territory. Then in Hurricane
Mitch’s aftermath, a new law proposed by themining industry granted unprecedented
new privileges. Called the GeneralMining Law, it reducedmineral export taxes and
slashed environmental regulation. It also gaveminers almost unlimited access to local
water supplies, allowed themto grab land against local objection, and centralised
environmental approval into a notoriously corrupt state agency. In 2000, the IMF
(InternationalMonetary Fund) further pressured Honduras to completely eliminate
mining product export tax.
Themining industry’s ensuing rapid growth has led to contamination of waterways—
used by Hondurans for drinking and bathing—withmercury, arsenic, lead, copper and
other heavymetals. To process gold ore, several artificial lakes have been constructed
and filled with deadly cyanide; leakage into rivers has been reported, and in onemining
community homes are located within 42metres of a cyanide leaching pad.
industrial farming grows: Expansion of export agri-business, such as banana
monoculture, has also taken its toll on Hondurans’ environment. Deforestation and
increased use of toxic pesticides such as organochlorines, dioxins, organo-phosphates
and paraquat are some of the negative consequences. As a result, Hondurans’ health is
adversely affected not only in the present, but will be for generations to come because
these contaminants are accumulating in the food chain. In particular the tobacco
industry, which also expanded its Honduran operations afterMitch, applies pesticides
while promoting consumption of its health-damaging products.
Timber companies further contribute to deforestation. These impacts have caused direct
species diversity declines in a region of high and important biodiversity. Drawing a line of
concern under such practices, the IPCC notes that Central America is already at high risk
fromforest loss due to climate change. It further finds that, “Under severe dry conditions,
inappropriate agricultural practices (deforestation, soil erosion and the excessive use of
agrochemicals) will deteriorate surface and groundwater quantity and quality.”
competition for vital resources: Big agribusiness andmining industries also compete for
land and water with subsistence farmers. The competition erodes the food and income
of Indigenous Peoples and peasants, and increases their poverty and forced evictions.
This helps explain why Hondurans, though living in a nation that exports food, are
among Latin America’smost malnourished. The latest IPCC research emphasizes the
particular climate change vulnerability of these Central American smallholders and
farmers, who have already been hit by drying trends.
other social shockwaves from mitch: Structural adjustment and ramped-up economic
privatisation sinceMitch have led to reduced funding for health and education.
Simultaneously, themilitary budget has increased substantially. The overall result is a
decline in social well being, health, education and living conditions. At the same time,
poverty, violence, corruption, repression, disease, panic and terror are all on the rise. For
example, Amnesty International documents the death squad killings ofmore than 1,500
children and youths in Honduras afterMitch, from1998-2002. According to the 2005 UN
Resident Coordinator Annual Report for Honduras,more than 47 percent of households
face extreme poverty, with the situation being worse in rural (71 percent living in
poverty) than urban areas (60 percent living in poverty). Among Indigenous and
Garífuna2 people,malnourishment ismost severe, reaching 80 percent.
12 | climate change: the testimonies
Candida RosaMaradiaga,
a 69-year-old single mother of nine,
Villa Franca neighbourhood, Tegucigalpa.
on environmental changes: There have been
changes in rain, themonths of the rainy
season and themonths of summer. It’s too
hot; before it wasn’t like this. There’smore
wind and even tremors in the ground that
have caused landslides. There’smore poverty.
on the impacts of these changes: There are
a greater number of illnesses. The heat is
unbearable, there are skin problems,
dehydration, headaches. There is a lower
quality of life. The percentage of poverty is
rising, there is less to eat because we don’t
have anywhere to plant food; extreme
poverty, desperation, affliction. There is
deforestation. The food we consume is
lower quality. And there is pollution
of the environment.
on working for change:We have struggled
in an organized way in the neighbourhoods,
looking for support frominstitutions, to be
able to carry on despite the poverty in our
communities. There aremany things we
didn’t have before, and now we do.
I have organized and participated in
workshops on naturalmedicine, human
rights, health, and environment. I work as
amidwife, as a leader in five community
groups, I work in literacy campaigns, as a
health volunteer, a housewife club, and in
balancedmeals workshops. I support
children’s lunch programs, housing
construction and improvements. I have
worked in the communities for sixteen years.
We are currently supporting a project to
build containers to gather rainwater.
honduras 14°n, 87°w
Left: Candida RosaMaradiaga © Candy Baiza Right: FoE Honduras workshop, Honduras © LeighMeuthing
quantifying mitch’s toll
nine families’ stories: To establish how climate change affects health and social
conditions, particularly in light of Honduran and international policies before, during
and afterMitch, we conducted focus groups with nine families. These women-headed
families are frompoor communities hardest-hit byMitch in Tegucigalpa and
neighbouring Comayagüela (which together formthe Honduran capital).
The researchers also gathered the women’s life histories, and used scenario building. The
study included quantitative work to determine climate change impacts on infectious
diseases, and qualitative work on how poor communities perceive climatic change. The
work was done from2004-2006 through community leaders affiliated with Honduran
Committee for Peace Action (COHAPAZ), a grassroots women's organization committed
to improving living standards of low-income families inmarginalized communities.3
quality of life eroded: The results illustrate how HurricaneMitch and climatic change in
general contribute to poverty. For example, 88 percent of study participants had their
homes partially destroyed by the hurricane, and 77 percent lost their jobs. Forty percent
had a familymembermigrate within the country afterMitch, while 60 percent had at
least one familymembermigrate to the USA or another country.4
Most (78 percent) found garbagemanagement more difficult, and qualitative reporting
revealed complete lack, or poormanagement, of sewage and water drainage, and
problems with garbage disposal.
Poor quality and lack of access to water was anothermajor issue. All respondents noted
decreased water availability in the dry season and increased water cost. They all also
observed increased amounts of dust and increased fire during the dry season. Three
quarters of respondents noted increased land slides. All respondents noticed ecological
changes in the formof slowed native plant growth.
pervasive health issues:Most respondents (89 percent) reported physical health
problems and depressedmood (78 percent) after HurricaneMitch.Most (85 percent)
also thought there were new diseases since the hurricane, and 71 percent reported
slower than usual recovery fromcommon diseases. Respiratory problems, diarrhoea, skin
infections, cholera, dengue fever andmalaria were diseases noted by respondents.
an unhealthy combination: Overall, our results indicate that Mitch’s direct impact on the
environment combines with destruction of health infrastructure, increased poverty and
violence (gang, police, as well as intra-family), and poor education to erode quality of life
and to increase disease. Other forms of climatic change, such as extreme dry or rainfall
events, add a particular burden for Hondurans, especially those who live in zones of risk.
outlook pessimistic if no change: Looking to the future, the women who participated in
our study were asked to predict what would happen if the situation remained
unchanged to 2020. They answered that they expect environmental and health
problems to increase and health services to remain poor or inaccessible. They also expect
higher infant mortality frommalnutrition, higher AIDS incidence, andmental health
problems. They predict more violence, delinquency, corruption and social chaos, extreme
poverty and increased emigration.
The latest report of IPCC scientists echoes this bleak outlook for urban dwellers in Latin
America, predicting that speeded-up urban growth, growing poverty and low
investment in water supply will contribute to urban water shortages, lack of access to
sanitation services, an absence of treatment plants, high groundwater pollution, and
lack of urban drainage systems. They also predict greater vulnerability to landslides and
mudslides for cities like Honduras’s capital.
climate change: friends of the earth international www.foei.org the testimonies | 13
“… when families tell us they are not organized we talk to them to see if they want
to belong to our group. Then we start to see the needs of each family; first if there
is no sewage system, drinking water, if they don’t have latrines. When we see all
this we request a project, like [water catchment] tubs, planting vegetables,
carrying out sanitation campaigns.”
Blanca Estela Serrano, 51-year-old mother, Tegucigalpa.
Top left: Blanca Estela Serrano © Candy Baiza Top right and bottom: Familymarket gardens in Honduras © LeighMeuthing
adaptation and resistance
“We have struggled in an organized way in the neighbourhoods looking for
support from institutions to be able to carry on despite the poverty in our
communities. There are many things we didn’t have before and now we do.”
Candida RosaMaradiaga, 69-year-old single mother, Tegucigalpa.
complex problems demand integrated solutions: Our research indicates that extreme
weather, exacerbated by climate change, has the greatest impact on health and
environment when combined with deforestation and loss of biodiversity. The
interconnected nature of these problems suggests that stand-alone adaptation
strategies, such as pesticide programs to deal withmalaria and dengue fever, will not be
successful. The wider preventativemeasures needed to tackle health impacts include:
improving quality of life by restoring forest cover; increasing biodiversity; improving soil,
water, and air quality; and applying the precautionary principle.
“If the Latin American countries continue to follow the business-as-usual
scenario, the wealth of natural resources that have supported economic and
socio-cultural development in the region will be further degraded, reducing the
regional potential for growth. Urgent measures must be taken to help bring
environmental and social considerations from the margins to the fore of
decision-making and development strategies …”
IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, 2007 p 607.
amid chaos, clarity on solutions: Our research shows that poor communities know what
they want: clean communities, decent housing, access to safe water, telephone service,
legal property rights, education, recreation areas such as football fields, health care,
policing without violence, and reforestation.
Just as importantly, the women who participated in our study also have clear ideas
about how to get there: through community organization; education and capacity
building, especially for children and youth; literacy programs; the freedomto protest
state-imposed injustice; working with health authorities and community programs;
developingmicro-enterprises and cooperatives; educating the police on human rights;
and generally raising community awareness of environmental justice and human rights.
a holistic approach: A possible approach to the challenge of health impacts fromclimate
change is the holistic, eco-centric one of “holobiohealth”. This entails considering the
health of all species—instead of taking the usual human-centred focus—with the
underlying logic that humans are intrinsically connected to their environment. This
necessitates looking at health promotion fromthe points of view of ecology, society,
economy, politics and ethics.
For Honduras, this entails preventing deforestation, addressing contamination by
pesticides and themining industry, and dealing with the issue of toxic residues.
Adhering to the precautionary principle, using integrative science and employing ethical
values, while acknowledging the complexity of issues, are the required approaches.
Significantly, our proposed strategies are in harmony withmany of the IPCC’s latest
recommendations for climate change adaptation in Latin America: that nations
empowermarginalised groups to allow themto influence decisions that affect their
ecosystemservices; that nations properly value andmanage these ecosystemservices
when it comes to poverty-reduction strategies; and that they fund adequate
programmes to reduce deforestation.
14 | climate change: the testimonies
HildaMaradiagaMejia,
a 55-year-old single mother of six,
Nueva Suyapa neighbourhood, Tegucigalpa.
aboutmy life: Inmy personal and family life,
since Iwas a child, Iwas organized. I like to help
my family,mymother,my siblings and others,
I value peoplewhowork together.
I work on sustainable development with
groups and organizations, to improve the
development ofmy community and the rest
of the people, and local and environmental
development of the land. I work in the fields
in agriculture and development, formy
children, to take care of the family education
and to improve education so as to improve
our quality of life formy family and also for
my organized group.
what I do to reduce climate impacts:
Community visits with the comrades who
are organized. Fighting poverty, bymaking
family and community gardens. Educating
about heath, nutrition, to improve child and
family nutrition.Making naturalmedicine
fromplants andmaking syrups.Workshops
on stress, health, and back, head and hand
massages.Medicinal plant exchanges
among communities, preventivemedicine.
my message to other affected communities:
Organize tomove forward and improve
yourselves. Improve nutrition by growing
family and community gardens. Join efforts
in different communities and organize. Plant
ornamental and fruit trees. Unite and work
on a national and international level,
because if we unite we are stronger and
more persistent. Be brave and try to help
your neighbours. Fight for a just world
without borders. Show affection, and love
God and your neighbours.
honduras 14°n, 87°w
HildaMaradiagaMejia © Candy Baiza
specific strategies: The holobiohealth approach underlies some of the following specific
strategies, which were suggested as outcomes to this study. These strategies aimto help
affected communities strive for better health, living conditions, dignity, human rights
and environmental justice.
• environmental education: To enhance participation in the environmentalmovement,
to organize and educate children and youngsters to engage in environmental justice
initiatives and encourage their participation in restoring forest cover. This can be
accomplished through organizations such asMovimientoMadre Tierra (Friends of the
Earth Honduras) and Friends of the Earth International.
• gardens and water: To strengthen the organization of COHAPAZ, which is already
working in 25 communities affected by HurricaneMitch. Also, to expand a successful
eight-month 2006 programthat encouraged poor urban families to cultivate 180
organic kitchen gardens and install systems to capture rainwater on rooftops,
and store it in homemade concrete reservoirs. (This project wasmediated through
COHAPAZ and Canada’s Falls Brook Centre).
• education: Literacy programs, health education, and gender education on prevention of
violence against women are other important initiatives that could be carried out through
COHAPAZ and Fundación Alfabetizadora Laubach, an award-winning literacy foundation.
• opposing corporate domination: Looking to higher-level solutions, it remains crucial to
oppose the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) which Honduras joined in
2006, and policies that will lead to the privatisation of Honduran health, education
and water services.
conclusion
Our research demonstrates the devastating impact of extreme weather events on the
economy, health, social well being and infrastructure of Honduras. The incursion of
multinationals and neoliberal economic policies have served to further aggravate
environmental destruction and injustice. This chain of events is a cautionary tale for the
Central American region, where climate change is expected to intensify extreme
weather such as HurricaneMitch.
To tackle the prevailing chronic state of emergency and further climate change impacts
in Honduras, we propose a holobiohealth approach. Our analysis of policies on climatic
changes and health drives home the need to account for the relationship between
sustainable development, respect for human rights, and environmental rights.
Ultimately, wemust rely on the people themselves to generate change. In a testament to
Honduran women’s resilience and strength, those who participated in rebuilding houses,
streets and even bridges completed this work in a shorter time than planned by
governments. Clearly great human potential exists. Our role is to foster its organization,
promote citizen’s participation in decisions, andmobilize themto create the
fundamental social, economic and political conditions required to address the root
causes and impacts of climate change.
1 Temperature increases of up to 6.6 °C for the wet season,
and up to 5.0 °C for the dry season, by 2080; IPCC.
2 TheGarífunas are descendents of Amerindian and African people.
3 COHAPAZ also organises protests against transnational
companies that pollute and engage in land-grabs and political
manoeuvring to the detriment of Hondurans’well being.
4 Minister of the Interior, Dr. Jorge RamónHernández Alcerro,
estimates 80,000Honduran citizens emigrate to theUS each year.
sources
COHAPAZ
www.enableinternational.com/cohapaz.html
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.
Contribution ofWorking Group II to the Fourth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Almendares J, Ela K, Epstein PR, SierraM, Anderson PK (1988)
Environmental Change and Human Health in Honduras.
In EcosystemHealth, D. Rapport, R. Costanza, P. Epstein,
C. Gaudet & R. Levins (eds.), Blackwell Science, Oxford: 343-347.
Almendares J, SierraM, Anderson PK, Epstein PR (1993) Health
and climate change. Critical regions: a profile of Honduras.
Lancet, 342:1400-2.
Almendares, J. Climate Change Futures: Health, Ecological
and Economic Dimensions. Country Regional Remarks, Rüschlikon
Executive Roundtable 2-4 June 2004.
Tickner, Joel (ed), 2002. Precaution, environmental science
and preventative public policy. Island Press.
acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Paul Epstein and Richard Levins,
Harvard University; Joel Tickner, Lowell University; Jean Arnold
and the teamat Falls Brook Centre, Canada;Michael Collins and
Carol Grandstaff; the women of COHAPAZ; Candy BaizaMartinez
ofMMT; Professor RubenMairena, Physiology Department,
University of Honduras; and the Alcohol, Tobacco Nutrition Drugs
and Ecology teamat the National Autonomous University of
Honduras (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras).
This and additional testimonies are on-line at
www.foei.org/en/campaigns/climate
climate change: friends of the earth international www.foei.org the testimonies | 15
Woman fromCOHAPAZ participating in the construction
of a water reservoir. Villanueva Tegucigalpa, Honduras
© LeighMeuthing
malaysia 3°n, 101°e
rising to the challenge
authors Sangeetha Amarthalingam&Meenakshi Raman,
Sahabat AlamMalaysia/Friends of the EarthMalaysia
In December 2006, the worst flooding ever recorded in theMalaysian southern region
claimed 15 lives. Successive waves of heavy rainfall following on from annual typhoons
prompted massive evacuations of tens of thousands of people.With damages tallied at
USD 440 million (MYR 1.5 billion), it was also the costliest flood inMalaysian history.
Notably, the intensity of the rainfall was attributed to climate change1. Although the
Malaysian Government had previously done little to tackle climate change, within a
month of the floods the Deputy PrimeMinister announced a technical committee to
look into how to mitigate and adapt to climate change. However, the pace of change
remains slow for latecomerMalaysia, and much remains to be done.
impacts
high on emissions, low on action: Since the December 2006 floods, the words “climate
change” are often onMalaysians’ lips, yet surveys indicate that understanding of its
causes and effects remains hazy.
Malaysia’s emission levels are very high for a small Southeast Asian nation. National
greenhouse gas emissions totalled 144million tonnes (CO2 equivalents) in 19942, with
per capita emissions being 57 percent above the global average (6.3 tonnes versus four
tonnes)3. Amajor contributor to the problemis the nation’s inefficient transportation
sector, accounting for 49 percent of total CO2 emissions in 1994,more than any other
major sector.4Malaysian industry is also highly polluting thanks to lackadaisical
government enforcement, and accounted for 41 percent of 1994 CO2 emissions.
Whilemany industrial scientists inMalaysia’s private sector are actually working intently
to find energy efficiency alternatives, better results could be achieved if the government
tackled the problemwith resolve. Government action that does come about inMalaysia
tends to be ad hoc—in response to particular events or public pressure, but without
addressing the fundamental shift required. These obstacles are compounded by the lack
of a precise Southeast Asianmodel for future climate scenarios.
Yet government has a duty to introduce effective adaptation andmitigation plans,
particularly in light of their responsibility to address the threat to affected people. As is
the case in somany regions, it is the lower-incomeMalaysians who have themost to
lose fromclimate change, and themost difficulty being heard.
coastal populations at risk: In PeninsularMalaysia, 56 percent of the population lives along
1,400 kmof coastline. Nationwide, about threemillionMalaysians live in flood-prone areas
that incur annual flood damage estimated at USD 30million (MYR 103million).
These coastal populations will be at further risk due to expected sea level rise of 3–15
cmby 2010 and 90 cmby 2070. In fact, the widespread inundation and erosion is
expected to lead tomassive evacuations. Some structures, such as bridges, dams, houses
and reclaimed lands,must be reassessed.5 Erosion is already taking place along coastal
areas that have been cleared for development and aquaculture. Demand for coastal
property remains high, despite strong calls to halt such developments.
Rousli Ibrahim, 61, inshore fisherman,
and former president, Penang Inshore
Fishermen’sWelfare Association (PIFWA),
town of Nibong Tebal, Penang state.
Life as an inshore fisherman is never easy these
days. Numerous threats and dilemmas plague
our daily lives, but the problemthat really
affects our livelihood is the depletion ofmarine
stocks as result ofmangrove forest clearing.
Since the early 1990s, PIFWA has been
replantingmangroves because of depleting
stocks but coupled with the problemof
illegal trawlers, we still became victims of
development. However, PIFWA was not
about to shirk its obligations of rejuvenating
the environment. This proved to be good
becausemangrove forests reduce the threat
of flooding during stormsurges, and break
strong waves and wind.
During the Asian Tsunami in 2004, the
forests protected us fromthe waves. There
were no casualties although the village faced
slight flooding.We were also thankful for
not losing our houses like what happened in
other parts of Penang, and Acheh. This
incident reinforced our efforts to replant
cleared areas and new sites along the coast
withmangrove. …We have planted close to
100,000 seedlings in seven places in Penang
since themid 1990s.We did this without the
help of the authorities. …Our work has
encouraged other inshore fishermen in
neighbouring states to do the same.
We do not identify with the words “climate
change” but we know there is a change in
the climate these days because we cannot
predict the weather or the wind conditions
like before. Rainy seasons are unpredictable.
In themeantime, we will continue planting
mangrove trees to prevent any further
disastrous impacts. It is our way of surviving
and keeping the ecosystemintact.
Left: Rousli Ibrahim© CAP Right: Children plantingmangroves,Malaysia © PIFWA
16 | climate change: the testimonies
“These pests, including brown hoppers, snails and rats, seem to have adapted
to the changing hot and rainy weather, and know how to survive the pesticides.
The constant heat and heavier downpours enable the pests to thrive
in my paddy fields.”
Hadi Edar, paddy farmer, Seberang Perai Selatan district, Penang state.
important crops vulnerable: Agriculture, the second largest contributor toMalaysia’sGDP,
is also threatened by climate change. From1968 to 2000,Malaysia’s average temperature rose
1 °C; for each further 1 °C rise, 9–10 percent ofMalaysia’s grain yieldwill be lost. If themean
annual temperature (currently 26 °C to 28 °C) reaches 31 °C, 12 percent of oil-palmyielding
hectares could bewiped out, and 15 percent of rubber-growing landwill be adversely affected.6
As for rising sea level, storm-driven ocean surges are already causing regular flooding of
rice fields in coastal regions. In December 2005, several thousand acres of rice fieldswere
inundatedwith seawater during storms in the rice-producing state of Kedah, for example.
“When logging began … we lost the ability to survive on the forest for food and
livelihood … The temperatures rose because of the lack of trees to keep the place
cool, there was a loss of biodiversity including flora and fauna, and some
animal species disappeared ...”
Juk Eng Jau, community development programme manager, Uma Bawang/Sungai Keluan communities,
Baram River region, Sarawak state.
forests destruction fuels climate change:Diverse rainforests and carbon-rich forest peatlands
cover 57 percent ofMalaysia’s landmass. They store billions of tons of carbon, but rapid—
sometimes illegal—destruction of these forests for timber or land development is fuelling
climate change by releasing this stored carbon, as greenhouse gases, into the atmosphere.
Other negative impacts of deforestation includewidespread erosion, silting up ofwaterways,
mudslides, flash floods, loss of livelihood for forest-dependent communities, and biodiversity
loss including the threat to the orang-utan, one of human beings’closest relatives. The issuing
of severalmillion hectaresworth of licences for oil palmplantations and pulp and paper
production in Sarawakwill drive further forest conversion. In coastal regions,mangrove
forests,which provide critical breeding and rearing habitat for fish and shield coastal
communities fromsea level rise, have been replaced by vast aquaculture projects.
adaptation
lack of leadership from the top:Malaysia still has no unified, concrete plan tomitigate
climate change or adapt to its impacts. InMalaysia, plans to tackle catastrophes are
typically put in place after a national catastrophe. Yet a national plan to deal with future
climate change is urgently needed now. The recent announcement of a technical
committee to study the impacts of climate change andmitigationmethods is definitely
timely. The Initial National Communication submitted to the UNFCCC in 2000 also
contained sound recommendations, but most of themhave yet to be explored.
action from the grassroots: Despite their relative lack of economic resources, a handful
of communities are using Indigenous knowledge to adapt their livelihoods to the reality
of climate change, as the testimony on these pages shows. They are doing so without
help or scientific input fromthe authorities.
climate change: friends of the earth international www.foei.org the testimonies | 17
Hadi Edar, a paddy farmer in his 60s from
the town of Sungai Acheh, Penang state.
I have been a paddy farmer for the past 40
years after learning the trade frommy father.
Since I was young, I learned how to cultivate
paddy using traditionalmethods, but in the
early 1970s, the authorities introduced new
methods to grow paddy that yielded good
results for a short time.
Thosemethods are no longer sustainable
these days because of the changes in the
environment and the rise in plant diseases.
The pesticides and seeds that are supplied to
us are not able to withstand the diseases
and increase of pests. These pests, including
brown hoppers, snails and rats, seemto have
adapted to the changing hot and rainy
weather, and know how to survive the
pesticides. The constant heat and heavier
downpours enable the pests to thrive inmy
paddy fields.
I changed back to the traditionalmethods
known as the cedung system… I realised that
the traditionalmethods kept the pests at
bay. And because thismethod uses lots of
water, even when it rains and floods the
fields, it will not destroy the crop because
the plants are tall and rise higher than the
water level …
The cedung systemhas rendered higher
yields because of the native knowledge of
keeping paddy fields healthy, including
rearing catfish in the water, which eat the
brown hoppers. And using buffalo to plough
the land instead of tractors. I amalso using
[the] organic pesticide pachakavya which
does not kill earthworms, and keeps the soil
healthy. I want to urge the government to
reinstate the oldmethods of cultivating
paddy fields because they would definitely
help farmers to prepare for the drastic
weather which is already showing its signs.
“What scientists are saying about climate change and deforestation is nothing
new to us. We just wish the government would take our plight into consideration,
as the people who are directly affected by their inaction in enforcing the law;
particularly since climate change is becoming an important agenda for them now.”
Juk Eng Jau, community development programme manager,
Uma Bawang/Sungai Keluan communities, Baram River region, Sarawak state.
slow path to forest conservation: Forests have an important role in reducing climate
change impacts.7 For example,mangrove forests provide a crucial shield for vulnerable
coastal development and agriculture, by buffering the effects of strong winds and heavy
wave action. Forests’ important role as carbon sinks was recognised by both the Forest
Research Institute ofMalaysia8 and the Stern Review, which advocate incentives to halt
deforestation in developing countries as a way to reduce emissions. However, such
measures are not provided for under the Kyoto Protocol.
Despite the negative trends of forest destruction and conversion described above, some
positive steps are being taken inMalaysia. These include the preservation, as permanent
forest reserve, of 316 hectares ofmangrove forests in Balik Pulau and Byram, both in
Penang state in PeninsularMalaysia. The Penang State Government has also
implemented guidelines to deter destruction of forests for development, particularly
aquaculture projects that have wiped out vast tracts ofmangrove forest in the past.
“There have been several times when the villages were spared from coastal
disasters because the [mangrove] forests absorbed the impact. During the
Asian Tsunami in 2004, the forests protected us from the waves.
There were no casualties although the village faced slight flooding.”
Rousli Ibrahim, inshore fisherman, and former president of the Penang Inshore Fishermen’sWelfare Association,
Sungai Chenaam village, Penang state.
tackling annual flooding: Government efforts underway to tackle flooding include
deepening rivers, installing high-capacity pumping plants and harvesting rainwater (see
below).Measures identified by the Drainage and Irrigation Department include zoning
flood areas, creating a large buffer between rivers and developments in forested areas,
and preventing developers frombuilding on floodplains.
Developments on floodplains are already numerous, and usually require the ground to be
levelled,which further contributes to flooding.However, a newhousingmodel, adapted from
traditionalMalay housing, is on the drawing board. The proposed houseswould be raised on
stilts to put occupants beyond the reach floodwaters; and because the stilted homes can be
built on rugged terrain, theywill not require surrounding ground to be levelled.
water shortages: RecentlyMalaysia’s PrimeMinister highlighted the importance of rainwater
harvesting to save freshwater for periods of prolonged drought. By-laws are being introduced
to require buildingswith large roofs—schools, factories, building complexes and some single
homes—to have rainwater harvesting systems. Thismeasure also aims to circumvent the
problemof river pollution,which hasmade riverwater untreatable or unusable.
conclusion
InMalaysia, change is often laboriously slow. Though some initial steps have been taken
in the wake of the December 2006 floods, the need to address climate change impacts
remains urgent.Malaysia’s political leadersmust ensure that climate change risk factors
aremainstreamed and integrated into current government policies.
Yet if this is ever to happen, this issuemust first be taken seriously by theMalaysian
people.Without their support and public outcry, it will be impossible tomobilise the
action urgently required frompoliticians and policymakers. Tomobilise the public,
it will be crucial to translate the science on risks and threats, so that Malaysians can
understand the full implications of climate change.
Juk Eng Jau, 40, community
development programme manager,
communities of Uma Bawang/Sungai
Keluan, Baram River region, Sarawak state.
We are native people of the Kayan
community who have lived on our ancestral
land for hundreds of years. Our village lies in
the interior of Sungai Keluan and despite the
remoteness, we still suffer at the hands of
giant corporations.When logging began in
these forests, including natural water
catchment areas, we felt our identity was
being taken away fromus because we lost
the ability to survive on the forest for food
and livelihood …
The temperatures rose because of the lack of
trees to keep the place cool, there was a loss
of biodiversity including flora and fauna, and
some animal species disappeared …
In 1992, when we could not take the clearing
of our forests anymore, we decided to
reforest the land ourselves with 2,000 local
tree species such asmeranti, kapur and
engkabang in Temhah Uket near our village.
To date, the 68-strong community group
known as the Uma Bawang Residents’
Association (UBRA) has planted up to 30,000
trees in four different areas. … In fact,my
family and I have planted 1,000 seedlings
since this venture started in the 1990s.
We hope that these trees would not just
help to restore the ecosystem, but also
reduce the impact of climate change.
Recently, we noticed that hornbill birds
(Sarawak’s national bird that disappeared
due to forest clearing) have returned to the
parts we reforested …
We knowhowimportant the forest is to the
environment becausewe are part of it andwe
respect it.What scientists are saying about
climate change and deforestation is nothing
newto us.We just wish the government
would take our plight into consideration as
the peoplewho are directly affected by their
inaction in enforcing the law, particularly
since climate change is becoming an
important agenda for themnow.
18 | climate change: the testimonies
malaysia 3°n, 101°e
P. Sambasivam, 50, vegetable farmer,
Cameron Highlands, Pahang state.
The weather is not cold anymore in the hills
because of rampant land clearing. This has
also caused high sediment in rivers and
occasional landslides. As a result of this,
I cannot grow the vegetables that I have
been growing for the past 25 years.
The weather is gradually becoming warmer
and the change in the weather fromrain to
sun and rain again is ruiningmy crops. I have
to change the seed sowing time because
of the climate.
Some vegetables like the coldweather and if it
continues gettingwarmer, I cannot growthem
anymore. The trees used to help keep the
highlands cool; nowit is hot even in the rainy
months of November and December. I have
nowmoved towards planting flowers like
marigolds to subsidisemy income because the
vegetables are not yielding good profits like
they used towhen the hillswere cooler.
SanmargamKathiravan, 41,
part-time jasmine flower grower,
town of Lunas, Kedah state.
The flower industry is very vulnerable to
changes in the weather as it depends on this
natural cycle to remain healthy. In the past
10 years, the weather has gone through
various changes such as heavy rain and hot
sun in different months. The weather is not
as predictable as before. …
My jasmine flower produce has never been
as consistent as it was some 10 years ago.
The flowers cannot withstand continuous
rain because the buds do not mature. … The
quality of the buds has also dropped. In the
past, themonths between April and June
yielded good harvests. Now, the harvest has
shifted to July. The business has suffered a
drop of between 25 and 30 percent.
There is not much I can do to solve the
problem, apart fromplanting other types of
plants that will adapt to this new climate. I
have started cultivating several vegetables to
subsidisemy income.
climate change: friends of the earth international www.foei.org the testimonies | 19
1 23 Jan 2007, The Star. According to Deputy PrimeMinister Datuk
Seri Najib Tun Razak: “Malaysians have to accept that the recent
floods, including Johor floodswere caused by climate change …”
2 Net emissions after accounting for sinks totalled the
equivalent of 76million tonnes of CO2; according toMalaysia’s
Initial National Communication, submitted to the UNFCCC
in July 2000.
3 Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (2005)
Climate Change inMalaysia –Multilateral Environmental
Agreements: Capacity Building and Implementation Project,
Malaysia. By the Conservation and Environmental
Management Division.
4 Malaysia’s Initial National Communication submitted to the
UNFCCC in July 2000, CO2 Emissions Fuel Combustion Based
on Total Final Use in 1994.
5 IPCC (1992) Global Climate Change and Rising Challenge of
the Sea, supporting document for IPCC,WorldMeteorological
Organization and UNEP, Geneva.
6 Research and NumericalWeather Prediction Development
of theMalaysianMeteorological Department.
7 Priority noted by the Forest Research Institute ofMalaysia
to the UNFCCC.
8 Reducing Emissions fromDeforestation in Developing Countries
– Submissions of Views byMalaysia to UNFCCC (Feb, 2007).
This and additional testimonies are on-line at
www.foei.org/en/campaigns/climate
Left: Jasmine flowers,Malaysia © CAP Right:Woman tending plants,Malaysia © CAP
Mangrove seedlings,Malaysia © PIFWA
mali 12°n, 8°w
a dry land confronts
a warming world
authorsMoctar Coulibaly,
Malian Association for Integrated and Participative Development
& JaniceWormworth
InMali, people are absolutely dependent on agriculture, and agriculture is absolutely
dependent on the climate. But this central dynamic ofMalian life is becoming ever-more
tenuous. Reduced rainfall in recent decades has devastatedMali’s largely arid and semiarid
landscape by causing periods of severe drought,which in turn triggered severe
famines. And although rainfall and harvests have improved somewhat in recent years,
climate changemeans thatMaliansmust regard drought as a future reality, not a passing
threat. A hotter climatewith reduced and shifting rainfallwill bring a severe challenge
to a nation already grapplingwith poverty, desertification and a growing population.
impacts
“Over the last few years, we have noticed that the sun is more burning
and the weather is hotter every year. There is much more dust in the air
and we ask ourselves where it comes from ... On top of this, there is the land
degradation, mostly due to cotton monoculture. Cotton takes about 85 percent
of our arable land.”
Daouda Sogoba, AV Secretary, Songuela, Zanina district.
on the desert’s edge: Landlocked inWest Africa,Mali’s territory extends into the Sahara
Desert to the north, the semi-arid Sahel region at its centre, and the somewhat wetter
Sudanian region to the south. Relatively favourable conditions for agriculture in the
Sudanianmake itMali’smajor food- and cotton-producing region. The Niger River, running
southeast to northwest through the southern half ofMali, is also amajor focus of economic
activity, teemingwith lifewhen annual flooding transforms it into a huge inland delta.
severe drought a freshmemory: During the 70s and 80s, drought struckMali hard as
rainfall dropped off by 20 to 40 percent in the Sahel. In the first five years of the drought,
a quarter of amillion people and 3.5million cattle died. Trees withered as the water table
sank below their root systems. Then drought hit again, forcing rural dwellers to leave their
farms andmigrate to Bamako, the nation’s capital, and other population centres.
Although rains and harvests improved somewhat from2003 to 2006,most scientists
agree that the Sahel is still desertifying. And the reason,most agree, is deforestation
and land use change, exacerbated by global warming.
future forecast: hotter with less rain: Climate change is expected to bring a hotter, dryer
andmore variable climate toMali. Average temperatures could increase by up to 4.5 °C
by 2025.Most climatemodels predict greater extremes of dryness for the Sahel. Overall,
Mali’s rainy season will be shorter and rainfall generallymore variable.
These climate shifts will threaten the food security ofMali’s farmers, as the growing
season is predicted to shorten by 20 percent by 2050. Some crops, such as cool-season
potato farming in Sikasso,may simply no longer be viable. The end result will bemore
hunger; by 2030 two thirds ofMalians could be undernourished.
Zoumana Dembélé, cotton farmer
in Zanzoni, Fakolo district, Koutiala Circle,
Sikasso region.
on too many farmers: In the past, farmers
using the land were just a few. At present,
the situation is just the opposite. So, today’s
land is very different. The land used to be
richer andmore productive. As population
grows, land ismore intensively farmed.
Fallowing land was practiced as a way of
restoring the soil’s fertility, but this doesn’t
exist anymore.
Continuous farming, excessive logging,
runoff of water and negative impacts of
chemical fertilizers lead to soil degradation.
Our parents and grand-parents did not use
chemical fertilizers; at that time, cotton
cultivation was not so very important. Things
were less difficult then. There were plenty of
trees and grasses that protected the soil.
on the lack of rain: At present, the vegetative
cover is very reduced and it rains less than
before. Farmers likemyself can scarcely
survive. Sometimes, we lose an entire
harvest through lack of rain.When this
happens, we can’t get out of it.
This aggravates poverty.
The lack of rain threatens agriculture and,
when agriculture is jeopardized, thewhole
development process is brought to a stop, since
farming is the only real source of income.
Climate change is a real danger for our survival,
butwe have no solution to this problem.
On the other hand, we are looking for
partners who could help us to develop
alternatives, such asmarket gardening,
that we practise here with water fromwells.
Cotton, Koutiala Circle,Mali, 2004 © Nic Fox
20 | climate change: the testimonies
Siaka Coulibaly, Chair of the Union
of Cooperatives in Tao District (Fonfona),
Koutiala Circle, Sikasso region.
onweather changes: I have noticed that it is
very hot now, andmuch toowindy. In the
past, it rained very often and theweatherwas
favourable, but it’s different now.When there
is toomuchwind, there aremore diseases.
Ten years ago, rains used to begin in April.
Now, we have to wait until the end ofMay,
and often until the 15th of June, to begin the
sowing. Rains were regular and well
distributed in all farming zones.
on the expanding desert: At present, some
villages have a lot of rain within a few days,
while their neighbours suffer fromthe
drought.Whichmeans that the desert is
taking great steps forward,mostly because
there are less trees, not only people cut them
but many of themdie as a result of the
scarcity or the lack of rain.
on soil degradation: About our soil’s
degradation, I think that it is the negative
impact of runoff water that destroys the soil
because there are not asmany trees and
shrubs as before.Men too are greatly
responsible for this situation, because they
fell toomany trees without taking into
account the dramatic results of doing so.
on re-planting trees: If we cut trees because
man cannot live without wood, we should
have the courage to replace them. True
enough, the drought makes reforestation
activities very hard, but wemust make some
effort along that line.
Then, there is themonoculture and the loss of
the practice of fallowing land. The unbridled
cultivation of cotton and the excessive use of
chemical fertilizers have degraded and
destroyed our land.We are experiencing now
the negative effects of this situation.
a nation of farmers: Agriculture is the lifeblood ofMali. About 80 percent of the labour
force works in agricultural production, and cottonmakes up roughly half of all exports.
But this foundation ofMali’s existence is becoming ever-more shaky. The sub-Saharan
region whereMali lies is the one region of the world where food production, per person,
is constant at an inadequate level—or is declining. About one third ofMalians are
simply not getting enough to eat.
other challenges
As a least-developed country and one of the world’s poorest nations,Mali is highly
exposed in a continent already noted for its climate change vulnerability. There are
insufficient resources to grapple with existing health and education demands and
development goals, let alone environmental shocks such as drought and climate change.
the quest for land: Poverty, population growth and reduced rainfall are forcing farmers
to expand the amount of waterless,marginal land they use for crops. This transforms
woodlands into fields prone to erosion and desertification. The quest for cooking fuel
and essentialmedicines further drives deforestation, perpetuating the cycle of
environmental degradation and poverty. The land degradation also leads to increased
labour demands, especially for women.ManyMalians are being forced to leave their
farms, and food insecurity is rife. All this puts tremendous pressure on natural resources,
and causes conflict between different groups seeking to use them.
a question of fertility: Low soil fertility is a serious and growing probleminMali.
Potential natural inputs, such as crop waste, are rarely added to the soil because farmers
believe their non-agricultural uses aremore valuable. At the same time, the excessive
use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides for cottonmonoculture has caused soil
and pollution problems.
adaptation
“… we should move towards a shift from conventional cotton to organic cotton,
which does not require the use of chemicals and pesticides.We plan to invest
in the production of organic manure, in order to restore the land and to
ameliorate its productivity. But we need external support to implement
those solutions.”
TeugueziéMalle, Chair of the Union of Cooperatives inM’Pèssoba district, Koutiala Circle, Sikasso region.
Facing up to persistent drought isMalians’ central challenge when it comes to climate
change. This is true even in the wetter Sikasso region (located inMali’s southern
Sudanian region) where rainfall has also declined since 1969. As the testimony on these
pages shows, lack of water has a direct and devastating impact in Sikasso, which is
highly dependent on agriculture, livestock and fisheries.
climate change: friends of the earth international www.foei.org the testimonies | 21
Farmers being interviewed,Mali, 2007 © AMADIP
“The lack of rain threatens agriculture and, when agriculture is jeopardized,
the whole development process is brought to a stop, since farming is the only real
source of income. Climate change is a real danger for our survival,
but we have no solution to this problem.”
Zoumana Dembélé, cotton farmer in Zanzoni, Fakolo district,
Koutiala Circle, Sikasso region.
how farmers are reacting
Even if they do not know the root cause,Malians know the climate is changing, and they
are trying to adapt at the local level in a variety of ways. Education and awareness are
key to helping farmers adapt, so decisionmakers and specialists are working to spread
useful information and the fruits of agricultural research.
fields of change: InMali, weather information is being used to help farmers plan and
respond to climate change. One successful national initiative provides expert bulletins
with the latest weather and hydrology information, along with data on current
agricultural problems or issues in the field. This helps decision-makers act if there is a
crisis, and also helps farmers decide when to sow and harvest crops, which leads to
fewer crop failures and better landmanagement. Better use of farmland, in turn, helps
lessen environmental degradation.
Farmers are also being urged to choose less water-intensive crop varieties, and crops with
shorter growing seasons tomatch the shorter period of water availability. For example,
lack of water is forcingmany farmers to abandon water-intensive rice cultivation in favour
ofmore drought-resistant millet, sorghumand corn. The development ofmore droughtand
heat-tolerant crops and strains is recognised as another important strategy.Where
soil erosion is a problem, farmers are being urged to address it by, for example, building
retention walls around their fields to keep soil fromblowing off.
There are also initiatives to stop “genetic erosion” of traditional crops that aremore
suited to the current climate, such as traditional varieties ofmillet. Some farmers are
also switching to organic cropping, including organic cotton, and in 2006, a citizens’ jury
of farmers in Sikasso voted to oppose the use of geneticallymodified crops.
keeping cows fed: Livestock play a huge role inMali’s subsistence economy. However,
reduced rainfall hasmeant declines in fodder plants, leaving grazing animals little to eat.
As these fodder plants wither and disappear, formerly non-migratory stockbreeders try
to adapt bymoving their stock about. Farmers also collect and save crop wastes for use
as animal fodder, and resort to any other sources of cattle food they can find.
changes to fishing needed: During the annual August-to-November floods, the Niger
River’s inland delta is transformed into a huge network of lakes, which later dry out into
separate lakes and ponds. The river’s freshwater fishery is an important source of food
and income forMalians. However, climatic change, irrigation and damming of the river
have reduced its flow by up to 30 percent in recent decades, causingmajor fish declines.
Overexploitation and destructive fishing techniques have also played a role.Malians are
trying to adapt to these challenges withmeasures to protect water levels, by using
more appropriate techniques for fishing, and by starting fish farming collectives.
The government is working to better regulate fishing and has alsomade the delta
a focus of plans to develop fish breeding, to boost fish production.
TeugueziéMalle, Chair of the Union
of Cooperatives inM’Pèssoba district,
Koutiala Circle, Sikasso region.
on the pros and cons of cotton: Cotton is
very important to us, because it is the only
cash crop in the area. It is because of cotton
that farmers are provided with chemical
fertilizers, pesticides, etc. These products are
given to us by the CompagnieMalienne pour
le Développement des Textiles (CMDT),
the cotton corporation inMali.
The excessive use of these products has a
negative impact on our environment.
However,we need to buy themand to use
themin order to gain access to credit fromthe
Banque Nationale de Développement Agricole
(BNDA) and othermicrofinance organizations.
on jeopardised development: Bush fires and
burning waste fromthe harvest have
negative impacts on the soil. Deforestation
and runoff water contribute to the problem.
All these factors lead to the loss of trees and
grasses, thusmaking it very difficult to raise
cattle. So, not only agriculture is difficult
because of the reduction of rainfall and the
continuous degradation of the land and the
vegetative cover, but cattle breeding is
jeopardised too, because of the lack of feed.
In these conditions, we try to pursue our
farming activities in spite of everything,
because this is the only source of income
and the whole development program
depends on it. But poverty worsens,
depriving people of their fundamental rights.
on solutions: The solutionswe can explore are
to reduce the areas sownwith cotton and to
start to plant trees. Also,wemust diversify our
sources of income, for instance by developing
local products and promoting equitable trade.
Furthermore,we shouldmove towards a shift
fromconventional cotton to organic cotton,
which does not require the use of chemicals
and pesticides.We plan to invest in the
production of organicmanure, in order
to restore the land and to ameliorate its
productivity. But we need external support
to implement those solutions.
Left: Unloading cotton, Koutiala Circle,Mali, 2004 © Nic Fox Right:Water pump driven by wind power,Mali, 2007 © AMADIP
22 | climate change: the testimonies
mali 12°n, 8°w
making every drop count: Integratedmanagement of water resources is vitally
important to help farmers adapt to climate change, but has so far had limited success.
Dams, barriers and weirs to regulate river flow formamajor strategy. However, it can be
challenging to ensure that some water users do not benefit at the expense of others.
Other strategies include encouraging farmers to capturemore rain and surface water,
deepening wells, and providing well drilling services for free. Farmers are also being
encouraged tomake better use of water, for example, by trappingmoisture in the soil
with a layer of straw. Cloud seeding1, which began in 2006, is a new way that national
authorities are trying to tackle the rainfall deficit.
saving forests: Reforestation and forest protection are considered important inMali, but
these efforts are losing ground against the relentless drive for fuel wood and farmland.
The government aims to intensify reforestation efforts. At the same time, local solutions
are being sought, such as the usemore efficient stoves, and charcoal briquettesmade
fromwaste products such as charcoal residues, cotton stalks and shavings from
sawmills. Solar technology and alternative fuels are also being explored.
trying to get by: Other waysMalians are trying adapt to climate change include
gathering wild grains and fruits, engaging in small-scale trade, and even switching their
occupations. In times of severe drought,many ruralMaliansmigrate to cities, returning
to the countryside when farming conditions becomemore favourable.
conclusion
The livelihood ofmost Malians is tied intimately to their land, but climate change is
literally causing the ground to shift beneath their feet. The sands of the Sahara are
claimingmore andmore fields as deforestation and global warming take their toll.
ThoughMalians have endured severe droughts in recent decades, they face a still hotter,
dryer future under climate change. The nation is trying to respond with information
programs, new farming practises and better watermanagement. But these adaptations
will takeMali, one of the world’s poorest countries, only so far. Ultimately, very real limits
on its ability to adapt mean that Mali and other least-developed African nationsmust
rely on global efforts to tackle climate change.
1 Cloud seeding refers to attempts to create rainfall in a target
area by dispersing substances, such as silver iodide or dry ice
into the air, which encourage ice crystals to form. As they fall,
the ice crystals become raindrops.
sources
Malian Association for Integrated and Participative
Development/AssociationMalienne pour le
Développement Intégré et Participatif (AMADIP).
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.
Contribution ofWorking Group II to the Fourth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
www.ipcc-wg2.org/
Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate Change in Least Developed
Countries (LDCs; April 2003). International Institute for
Environment and Development.
www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ldc/LDCsreport.pdf
Butt et al. (2006) Policies for reducing agricultural sector
vulnerability to climate change inMali. Climate Policy 5; 583–598.
This and additional testimonies are on-line at
www.foei.org/en/campaigns/climate
climate change: friends of the earth international www.foei.org the testimonies | 23
The effects of drought and erosion,Mali, 2007 © AMADIP
Collecting water,Mali, 2007 © AMADIPbruary 2005, King
tides, Funafuti, Tuvalu © gary braasch
24 | climate change: the testimonies
peru 12°s, 77°w
high climate risk
in a land of extremes
authorsMaría Teresa Colque Pinelo &Victor Emilio Sánchez Campos,
Asociación Civil Labor/Friends of the Earth Peru
As with many developing countries, a big mismatch exists between Peru’s relatively
small contribution to the climate change crisis and the enormity of the impacts it faces.
Though contributing just 0.4 percent of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, Peru
has been called the world’s third most-vulnerable country to climate change impacts.
Melting glaciers, more extreme weather and intensifying El Niños warn that climate
change is already underway in this spectacular but sensitive landscape—from the
snow-capped mountains to coastal deserts and tropical rainforests.
impacts
a hotter future: Globalwarmingwillmake Peru hotter, causing average temperature
increases of up to 1.8 °C by 2020, 4.0 °C by 2050 and 7.5 °C by 20801—a huge change.
Thiswarming is very likely to cause tropical glaciers like Peru’s to disappear over the next 15
years, according to the latest UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report.
trickle down effect: As a result, sixty percent of Peru’s population is likely to be affected by
loss ofwater supply and energy supply, and the economywill also be impacted. TheMantaro
River is likely to be one of themost affected; it feeds a hydroelectric plant that supplies 40
percent of Peru’s power, including energy for 70 percent of the country’s industries.
coastal impacts in store: On Peru’s largely arid coastal plain, climate change is likely to
transformagricultural lands into desert, and increase soil saltiness (salinisation). El Niño
events are expected to intensify.Warming ocean water, along with other changes caused
by global warming, would disrupt Peru’s fisheries, and along the coast, flooding is
expected to cause problems.
frozen water stores vanishing
records of retreat: Globalwarming has already caused Peru’s glaciers to shrink at an
alarming rate. This trend is accelerating, becoming critical in Peru and other Andean nations.
Over the past 35 years, almost a quarter of Peru’s total glacier area has been lost, causing a
12 percent reduction of freshwater to the coastal zone.
The retreat of four Cordillera Blanca glaciers2 hasmeant the loss of 188million cubicmetres
ofwater reserves over the last fifty years. The Qori Kalis glacier in the CordilleraVilcanota
retreated an average of 155metres per year from1998 to 2001; 32 times faster than during
1963 to 1978. It is very likely to disappear in the next fewyears—as is the Pastoruri glacier,
themost emblematic in the Cordillera Blanca.
economy at risk: These glaciers have great importance for Peru’s coastal region, home to
about 60 percent of all Peruvians, and 70 percent of productive activities, including
irrigated agriculture.Water supply and activities fromelectricity production to tourism
are almost entirely dependent onmountain sources. Traditionally, about 80 percent of
Peru’s electricity comes fromhydro power. In the dry seasonmost of this water comes
fromthe now-dwindling glaciers, and water supplies have already been compromised.
“We are [the] only city in South America with so few reserves — less than a
year's supply.We are very vulnerable …We really are on the edge of an abyss.
Carlos Silvestri, former president of state-owned water company Sedapal, on Lima’s water crisis3.
Eulogio Capitan Coleto, age 63,
president, Environment Committee,
Vicos community, department4 of Ancash.
on climatic changes: Nowthe people are
realizing that the snows are receding. They
also realize that the climate has changed.
For example, at any timewe get frosts, hail.
Before the frost came every three or four years
in themonth of December or November. In
the time of our grandparents and parents it
came every three or four years; nowit
happens in any givenmonth. Also the hail
was very infrequent before.When Iwas a
child thewinds came in August, nowit’s any
time;we’ve lost crops because of that.
on farming impacts:We harvest potato, corn,
wheat, peas, beans, quinoa, etc. The crops
have not changed; wemight change the
type of potato, quinoa, but not the crops.
The quality has changed. Before therewas
higher quality andmore harvests. Nowit’s not
like that, it’s a lower quality, there areworms;
beforewe only cured the crops once, nowwe
have to do it two or three times. Newdiseases
have appeared. The blackmark [fungus]
appeared just 10 years ago; nowwe use a
remedy against it. This could have something
to dowith the change in temperature.
on frost damage:Most of the crops are
wateredwith snowmelt.However, the frost
that happened in February has damaged a lot
of crops in theQuebradaHonda [a deep valley
two hours up in the Cordillera Blancamountain
range].Normally the frosts come before
January 8. This is the first time it happened in
February; nobody had given it a thought.
Somany lost their crops … almost all the
families were affected. All the crops, almost
all, were damaged in Quebrada Honda. The
crops of native potato, beans, olluco, oca,
mashua [types of tubers],most of which are
for our own consumption, are hoped to
recover once it rains, so we will have at least
some of the seeds of our labour.
Eulogio Capitan Coleto holding potato affected by fungus, Vicos, Peru, 2007 © Asociación Civil Labor/FoE Peru
climate change: friends of the earth international www.foei.org the testimonies | 25
deadly breaches: Over the past century, global warming in the Cordillera Blanca has
caused some of the world’smost deadly glacial lake outburst floods. Since 1941, thirty
glacier disasters have led to 30,000 deaths there. Harvests, cattle, industrial facilities,
infrastructure, houses and other private property have been destroyed.Many residents
remain in the path of danger even today.
other changes underway:While north-western Peru has seenmore precipitation during
recent decades, southern Peru’s precipitation has declined.More extreme El Niño events
are taking a toll. El Niño begins with warming of Pacific Ocean surface waters just off
Peru’s coast, followed by unusually heavy rains in the country’s northwest. In recent
decades, successive El Niños have caused flash floods andmudslides, leavingmany dead
and hundreds of thousands homeless. El Niño is also bad news for Peru’s fisherman,
causing numbers of coldwater fish, such as anchovies, to plummet.
threats to farmers
“Before the frost came every three or four years in the month of December
or November … now it happens in any given month.”
Eulogio Capitan Coleto, age 63, President of the Environment Committee, Vicos community, department of Ancash.
Climatic changes are already affecting Peru’s crops, which in the coastal region depend
on dwindlingmountain water sources. Agriculture uses about 80 percent of Peru’s water,
but current irrigationmethods are neither efficient nor effective.
Livestock, including animals in highmountain zones, are also affected bywater shortages.
Alpacas get infectionswhen forced to drink frommuddy pools instead of running streams.
These highland animals are being infectedwith newdiseases, aswarmer temperatures
make their environmentmore hospitable to snailswhich host parasites.
El Niño has brought a newdisease threat to crops. Higher rainfall and humidity in some
regions has brought plagues of fungal disease to crops ofmaize, potato,wheat and beans.
the friaje: Climate change also bringsmore extreme weather. In Peru, episodes of
extreme cold with frost and hail, called friaje, strikemountain areas, causing
temperatures to dip as low asminus 35 °C. This can impact entire communities
dependent on subsistence agriculture for their survival, including some of Peru’s poorest
andmost isolatedmountain dwellers who live at elevations of 4,000 to 4,500metres.
Though cold fronts are not new, highland dwellers believe they are gettingmore
frequent, abrupt and extreme. Farmers complain of hail storms that now come without
warning and out of season, at any time of the year. In February 2007, unseasonable and
severe frost and hail destroyed crops in the south-central department of Huancavelica,
affecting 40,110 farming families. And in 2004, recurrent icy fronts with hail affected
more than 300,000 families in the poorest areas of Peru’s southern highlands;more than
250,000 cattle died and over 1,000,000 ha of pastures and crops were lost.6
Local people also say that although days are warmer, nights are colder, and this is
causing alpacas to freeze to death. These animals are indispensable to highland people’s
survival and way of life.
“At the moment, we are experiencing a very strong process of glacial retreat.
… in the dry season the glaciers are the only ecosystem that is supporting the river.
And this problem of the process of glacial retreat is so fast, that in a very short
time, it’s possible the glaciers will disappear and there will be a problem of a lack
of water for future generations.”
Marco Zapata Luyo, Head, Glaciology and Water Resources Unit,
INRENA; as quoted by the BBC5.
Aurelia Luria Ceferina, age 45,
farmer and mother, Vicos community,
department of Ancash.
onweirdweather:We don’t knowanymore
when it will rain orwhen therewill be frost.
Beforewe knewwhen frostswould happen
andwe could protect our crops, provide
warmth to the plants so theywouldn’t freeze.
Nowthe rains are strong,washing out the
ground, thewind also blows strong and bends
the corn; the frosts have frozen crops.
on coping with the frost: Here in our gardens
we plant for our daily consumption; we have
a little native potato, a little corn. The big
crops are up in Quebrada Honda and all have
been frostbitten.
The women normally stay at home in charge
of the garden and the children, we only go
up to help our husbands. Now, because of
the frost, we have all gone up to try to
salvage something. The children stay here
with their oldest sister (aged 12).
Aurelia Luria Ceferina with potatoes affected by frost, Vicos, Peru, 2007 © Asociación Civil Labor/FoE Peru
26 | climate change: the testimonies
Vicente Salvador, age 58, farmer, Camray
Chico community, department of Ancash.
on the friaje: Some farms have been affected
by the frosts.When the frost comes you lose
the entire year’s harvests, as well as the
investment. The frost comes when the rains
go away; but we have never had frost in
February, and it has ruined all our crops.
Here we plant food for our own use, there
are very few people who plant to sell,mostly
it’s for our own consumption.We just hope
the rains come and we can recover some of
what we lost. There are approximately 140
families that have lost their crops.
on new plant diseases: Before there were
no diseases that affected the potato and
other crops. These diseases have been
increasing through the years. The black
mark has appeared because of the excessive
humidity; this black colour is a fungus
and the remedy is costly.
The potato production is not like it was
when I started growing approximately 10
years ago. The yield is lower; before we got
17 or 15 bags, now we only get eight or five.
Sometimes there is a lot of rain and it kills
the potato flower; now the rains are very
strong and the water saturates the ground.
on declining rain and snow: Before Juliota
lagoon didn’t dry out, it hadwater; last year it
dried out. The lagoon provided a sign;when
the fog rose fromthe lagoonwe knewit would
rain. But nowthat it has dried out, it hasn’t
rained until December.
The snowis receding every year. Three years
ago therewas snowin themountain, nowit’s
all turning black. Nowwe see that thewater
fromsnowmelt has a leaden colour, because it
is going through areas that had snowbefore
but noware bare. Thiswater drains through to
the Negro River and pollutes it evenmore. …
Thewaters of the Negro River are used for
watering and for drinking. Thesewaters come
down fromthe snowy peaks.
Left: Vicente Salvador & Luis Balabarca in field of crops destroyed by frost, Canrey Chico, Peru, 2007 © Asociación Civil Labor/FoE Peru
peru 12°s, 77°w
cultural meltdown: Climate change is also affecting our people’s culture. Every June,
since the days of the Inca Empire, thousands havemade the yearly pilgrimage to
Ausangate, a sacred 6,372-metre peak in Peru’s southern highlands. Their goal is to
attend the festival of Qoyllur Riti (snow star), in which Ukukos (people dressed in bear
costumes) take ice blocks fromthemountain to bless their lands and crops, and thank
the Apus (divinemountains) for their kindness. In 2007, however, the ritual could not be
followed; there was so little snow on Ausangate that the Ukukos decided not to remove
more of it, out of respect for the Apus.
adaptation
In Peru, the environmental, economic, cultural and health impacts of climate change are
exacerbated by lack of knowledge about the problemand its solutions. Despite the
seriousness of the threat, climate change still rarelymakes political agendas in southern
Peru. It is vitally important that steps be taken to informthe population, and adopt
public policies tomitigate climate change’s effects.
One of the first official efforts to tack climate change is PROCLIM7, a National Environment
Council (CONAM8) project that seeks to reduce poverty while integrating climate change
and air quality issues into sustainable development policies. PROCLIMfocuses on three
regions directly dependent on natural resources vulnerable to climate change: the basins
of theMantaro (department of Junín), Piura (Piura) and Santa (Ancash) rivers.
Under a second CONAMproject, the Ancash government is working with CONAMto
evaluate the Santa River Basin’s vulnerability and propose ways to adapt to climate
change through participative processes.9
helping farmers adapt
Many non-indigenous crops cannot withstand the current Andean trend towardmore
extreme weather, so authorities are bringing back traditional varieties better suited to
tough conditions, or trying new varieties. Pilot projects proposed by CONAMare being
trialled; in northwestern Peru’s Piura department, farmers are using corn varieties
adapted to tropical conditions. Species of fruit trees less sensitive to temperature
anomalies are also being assessed, and proposals for crops with lower water
requirements are underway. In the Junín department, proposals for integrated
management systems to tackle the problemof plant diseases are being developed.
In the Vicos area of Ancash, people are also tackling the new problemof water
contamination, caused by sediment andminerals released as glaciers retreat above the
Quebrada Honda (valley). Villagers are building holding ponds to allow looseminerals to
settle, to keep themid- and lower reaches of the river basin free of contamination.
climate change: friends of the earth international www.foei.org the testimonies | 27
addressing water woes
Various attempts are underway to address pressures on Peru’s water supply.
The National Institute of Natural Resources (INRENA10) is using its Glaciology andWater
Resources Unit tomonitor and evaluate glaciers and high-altitude lakes in Huascaran
National Park in the Cordillera Blanca, with the goal of using this information to help
prevent natural disasters and water shortages caused by global warming.
Improved irrigationmethods are being trialled. In one initiative, farmers on upper slopes
are installing piping beneath their plots to cut their use in half, so that users further
downslope receivemore water. On amacro level, trans-basin water transfers could help
solve water shortages, as is already done for Peru’s Alto Piura andMantaro basins.
However, this approach poses new risks to watersheds and the wider environment.
The latest IPCC report also suggests that the sophisticatedmethods used by our
pre-Columbian societies to deal with limited water resources and the harsh climate
could be brought back, to help us adapt to this era of global warming.
conclusion
Peru’s tropical glaciers have already proven extremely sensitive to global warming.
What’smore, our economy—fromlivestock raising to hydroelectricity—is highly
dependent on glacier water. Climate change is not a future threat, but instead an
alarming reality upon us now, revealing the fragility of our economic system.
Unfortunately, it is the poorest among us who are beingmost harmed. As a developing
country, we are unable to domuch directly to stemglobal emissions. However, it falls
upon us to warn the wider world community about the impacts they are generating;
and to demand responsible policies to see through immediate GHG reductions.
Our populationmust not be forced to suffer the consequences of thismighty
irresponsibility; it is time for action.
Marco Zapata Luyo, Head, Glaciology
andWater Resources Unit, INRENA.
Globalwarming has caused [the extent of]
the Pastoruri glacier, themost emblematic of
the Cordillera Blanca, to decrease
approximately 21 percent in a period of four
years (2001-2005); if this continues, it is very
probable that in the next years this glacierwill
disappear completely.
In 1989 an inventory wasmade, on the basis
of aerial photos, of different mountain
ranges in Peru, to determine the number of
existing glaciers. The result showed 3,044
glaciers with an extension of 2,041 km2.
Nevertheless, in 1997, a new inventory
showed the loss of 111 glaciers, and also the
loss of 446 km2 of their extension.
At the present time, the Broggi andYanamarey
glaciers are suffering fromthe damage of global
warming; at themoment the Broggi glacier
is not considered a glacier anymore, because
it lost an important mass of ice in recent
years.Weworry that, because of the reduction
of thewater reserves, it could cause future
water problems, especially for agriculture.
1 Refers to dry season values for Amazonia
(Tropical South America)which includes Peru; IPCC 2007, P. 594.
2 Broggi, Uruashraju, Yanamarey and Santa Rosa glaciers;
the Cordillera Blanca is located in the department of Ancash,
west-central Peru and is the country’s highestmountain range.
3 Quoted in People and Planet, 14March 2007 at
www.peopleandplanet.net/doc.php?id=2971
4 A department is similar to a state or region.
5 Peru's glaciers in retreat, BBC website, 25 August 2005, at:
news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4720621.stm.
6 According to INDECI (National Institute on Civil Defense)
7 “Programa de Fortalecimiento de Capacidades Nacionales para
Manejar el Impacto del Cambio Climático y la Contaminación
del Aire”or “Empowering national capacities programto
manage climate change impacts and air pollution”.
8 Consejo Nacional del Ambiente, Peru’s national
environmental authority.
9 The project is called the “Second National Communication
fromPeru to the Climate Change Convention”.
10 Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales (INRENA).
sources
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.
Contribution ofWorking Group II to the Fourth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
www.ipcc-wg2.org/
Friends of the Earth Peru / Asociación Civíl Labor.
www.labor.org.pe/
This and additional testimonies are on-line at
www.foei.org/en/campaigns/climate
Aurelia Luria Ceferina, Vicos, Peru, 2007 © Asociación Civil Labor/FoE Peru
swaziland 26°s, 31°e
facing the heat
author Natacha Terrot,
Yonge Nawe Environmental Action/Friends of the Earth Swaziland
Swaziland’s greenhouse gas emissions are so lowas tomake this southern African nation
essentially carbon neutral. Unfortunately, this does notmake Swaziland immune to
climate change impacts. Swazis are expected to suffer greatly froma future of hotter
temperatures, greater drought, andmore extremeweather. However, events on the
ground already signal that these changes are not part of some far off future scenario.
This year, drought caused crop failures so severe that a state of natural disasterwas
declared by the government. Though climate change is clearly a daily feature of Swazis’
lives, and despite stark evidence ofmounting impacts, leadership’s failure to prioritise
the problemmeans little is being done to help Swazis adapt.
impacts
“Climate variability, including extreme events such as storms,
floods and sustained droughts, already has marked impacts on settlements
and infrastructure [in Africa].”
IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, 2007 p 450.
vulnerable country, vulnerable region: The Kingdomof Swaziland is a landlocked nation
in the southern part of Africa, one of the continentsmost vulnerable to climate change,
according to the UN IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). Factors including
poverty and environmental damage serve to aggravate this vulnerability. And although
Swaziland is one of Africa’s wealthiest nations, it is still one of the world’s poorest.
Although specific predictions for Swaziland are lacking, a picture of the expected
regional changes has emerged. Africa-wide, the latest IPCC figures warn of a 3-4 °C
temperature increase by 2080-2099.1 Climatemodels also predict that bymid-century,
sub-Saharan Africa will be 0.5-2 °C warmer, and drier, with 10 percent less rainfall. By
2055, the number of people in the southern Africa subregion experiencing water stress
is expected to increase by tens ofmillions, and almost all countries in this region will
have streamflow reduced. Southern Africans can also expect to seemaize production
reduced, while studies of Swaziland’s neighbour, South Africa, warn of a 90 percent drop
in net crop revenues by 2100, with small-scale farmers being hardest hit. Climate
change is also likely to causemalaria transmission zones to expand in this subregion.
“The weather has changed. Summers have become unbearably hot and winters
extremely cold. There is a lot more sickness during the winter.When we were
young we knew that summers were always wet.When school opened in January
there was always a lot of rain. But in recent years the rainfalls have decreased.
This year was even worse.We have had droughts before
but this was one has been the worst.”
DuDu Dlamini, 34, high school teacher,Mdumezulu,Manzini region.
EmmanuelDlamini, Director,
SwazilandMeteorological Services,Mbabane.
on climatic changes: Recent weather
patterns indicate a serious change fromthe
past and we’re aware that Africa is predicted
to be the worst affected withmore frequent
and extreme weather events.
Whilst in Swaziland we do not have the
statistics tomake long-termcomparisons,
we do know that in the last 15 years there
has been a 12 percent increase in days with
temperatures over 35 degrees Celsius, and
up to a 50 percent decline in precipitation
during themonths of September and
October, the start of the rainy season in
some parts of the country. The frequency
and intensity of storms is also on the rise.
We’re also at risk because our economy
relies heavily on a climate sensitive
industry, agriculture.
on lack of preparedness: The biggest
challenge for us is whether we have the
mechanisms in place to cope when these
happen. It’s not a nice thing to say but
unfortunately I believe we do not.
It is at times like these that disaster planning
and coping systems come into play. If a
disease outbreak occurs in industrialised
countries, the people are quickly given
vaccines to prevent the disease spreading.
If the disease is serious those that have it are
quickly quarantined. They have long grown a
culture of preparedness. If severe flooding
occurs, rescue helicopters are quickly
dispatched and few lives are lost.
This does not happen here.We are typically
more vulnerable to events such as natural
disasters and far lesswell equipped to cope
with the consequences. Our people eventually
have to bear the full brunt of the catastrophe
on their own. Political leadership, economic
realities and constant bickering between
states results in governments focusing on
defence instead of these pressing issues.
climate change not prioritized: Seemingly we
have not given the topic of climate change
the priority it deserves. Our leaders do not
evenmention this problemin their addresses
unless they are specifically invited to a
meeting to do so. This shows an acute lack of
understanding—or is it commitment?
Instead we learn our future fate from
European and American satellite television.
february 2005, King tides, Funafuti, Tuvalu © gary braasch
28 | climate change: the testimonies
a real and present danger: However, the reality is that in Swaziland, these changes are
already underway. Drought, erratic weather and declining or disappearing crops are not
abstract projections, but rather the scourge of rural Swazis’ daily lives.
In April 2007, following a prolonged dry spell, the country experienced its worst-ever
harvest. Approximately 400,000 vulnerable people—about 40 percent of the
population—need food assistance until the next harvest in April 2008.
state of disaster: The Government of Swaziland has declared a state of national disaster
in light of the harvest failure, and has promised USD 18million (SDE 170million) in
assistance. But without successful adaptation strategies, food security will become
increasingly difficult to achieve and humanitarian crises will worsen in Swaziland.
“The poorest will be hit earliest and most severely. … The human consequences
will be most serious and widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, where millions
more will die from malnutrition, diarrhoea, malaria and dengue fever, unless
effective control measures are in place.”
Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change, p. 84.
low on emissions, high on impacts: In its first National Communication to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) in 2000, the Kingdom
proudly declared Swaziland’s carbon neutrality. Despite having played almost no role in
causing climate change, Swazis are already struggling with the extra stresses it imposes.
According to top British economist Sir Nicholas Stern, those worst affected will be
sub-Saharan countries like Swaziland. Rain-fed, small-scale farming providesmost of
Swaziland’s food and employs 75 percent of the workforce. These fundamental facts
make the Kingdomexceptionally vulnerable to the uncertainties and weather extremes
of global warming.
“Crime is also on the increase. Just last week some students were chased around
by unknown men. Teachers have been robbed and their houses broken into.
There are a lot of young people without jobs and people are hungry.We feel
very vulnerable.”
DuDu Dlamini, 34, high school teacher,Mdumezulu,Manzini region.
a decade of drought:Whilst Swazis are accustomed to the challenges of drought and
food shortages, these droughts are changing. As well as lasting longer, they aremore
frequent and intense, giving families and their livestock less time to recover. The rainy
seasons, once predictable, have become erratic and scarce. The people complain that
there are no good rains anymore. The Great Usutu River, which would flow strongly after
rains in January and remain high formuch of the year, is now low year-round.Water,
which was once plentiful, has become so scarce that some rural people have been forced
to drink fromthe same sources as their cattle.
Make Nhleko, traditional council elder,
Zombodze Emuva, Shiselweni region.
on extremeweather damage:This has been a
very bad year as I have cultivated very little.The
hailstorminDecember 2006made things even
worse.The roof of the supermarket behind us
was totally blown off during the stormand crops
and houseswere destroyed. I nowhave to buy
maize and beanswhich I used to plant. But at
least I can afford to buymaize.There aremany
that cannot and it ismuchworse for them.
time-worn traditionswearing out: In the past,
the chiefwould call the people toweed or
harvest his fields. Thiswas away of unifying
the people of the area. Afterweeding the fields
the peoplewould gather at the chief’s kraal
[livestock enclosure] and issues affecting the
communitywould be discussed. The chief
would slaughter a cowfor the people and food
harvested fromthe chief’s fieldswould be
used to feed those people in the community
who had nothing and could not afford to feed
themselves. In thisway everyone had
something to eat. But nowthere is nothing to
harvest so even the chief cannot help those
that have nothing to eat.
howlivestock are affected: I also keep goats
and cattle. But there is very little grass for them
to feed on. In the past the grasswas always
lush and plentiful. The cattlewould survive the
winter through eatingwhateverwas left on
the fields after harvest. But nowthere is
nothing left. There has always been stock theft
but nowit isworse because our cattle have to
travel long distances in search ofwater. This
painsme because for us our cattle are gold.
on water shortages:Water is a big problem.
Our rivers and wells have dried up. Even
some boreholes provided by the Canadian
government back in 1997 have since dried
up. The community is now digging some
trenches for water pipes which we hope will
carry water froman old borehole. At the
moment wemust fetch fromthe rivers and
wells that have not yet dried up.We share
the water with livestock. Diseases like
cholera and diarrhoea are very common
because the water is always dirty.
climate change: friends of the earth international www.foei.org the testimonies | 29
“Seemingly we have not given the topic of climate change the priority it deserves.
Our leaders do not even mention this problem in their addresses unless they
are specifically invited to a meeting to do so. This shows an acute lack
of understanding — or is it commitment? Instead we learn our future fate
from European and American satellite television.”
Emmanuel Dlamini, Director, Swaziland Meteorological Services, Mbabane
Mrs Nhelko, Swaziland © Natacha Terrot
competition forwater: Globalwarming is one, but by nomeans themain, cause of the
region’swater shortages. In theory, there should be plenty ofwater for all. The Lubombo
region, one of the hardest-hit by the drought, is home to big commercial sugar cane farms.
Awater-intensive crop, sugar cane requires year-round irrigation. People are beginning to
complain that unregulated irrigation by the big farms is reducing river and groundwater
levels. Yet the government is reluctant to impose restrictions on these commercial farmers,
choosing instead to lecture small-scale farmers onwater conservation.
“It has always been difficult, since my husband passed away, but we usually
manage by selling our surplus harvest. But there was nothing this year. The
drought wiped out our maize crop and now we must manage to stay alive on
the food supplies handed out.”
Make Ndzabandzaba, 44, small-scale farmer and mother of seven.
no safety net: Furthermore,most Swazis cannot afford insurance, do not have savings to
fall back on, and are not in a financial position to change theirmeans of earning a living
if land is flooded or crops fail. In the aftermath of a disaster these people aremore
vulnerable to infectious diseases, for example, because of poor health care, diet and
sanitation, and climate change will only worsen these risks. Bilharzia (schistosomiasis),
a potentially debilitating disease, has increased in both distribution and intensity due to
warming. In Swaziland, the lethal combination of drought and land degradation,
increasing poverty, and HIV/AIDS already pose a humanitarian crisis.
a winter marked by cold and hunger: As winter deepens, hardship following the failed
harvest fastens its grip on growing numbers of people. In 2007, the country is
experiencing its coldest winter inmany years, and there is little food.
In the past, extended families shared amongst themselves to ensure no one starved
after crop failures. Now high food pricesmean that even people with jobs are struggling
to feed themselves and their immediate families. TheWorld Food Programme, in itsMay
2007 assessment, predicted that evenmiddle-class Swazis would be hard pressed by
food-price inflation, while the poor would be unable to purchase even basic foodstuffs.
The Swazis’ traditional copingmechanisms are stressed to breaking point.
adaptation
“If our leaders were worth their salt, global warming would have been brought
into mainstream public deliberation so that solutions would be found on how
best to position ourselves as a country.”
WiltonMamba, Assistant Editor, The Times of Swaziland (national newspaper).
Since Swaziland ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 1998, little action has been taken to
address climate change. Public discussion of the policies and issues involved are long
overdue. Important decisions should bemade: whether tomake themost of projects on
offer under the Kyoto Protocol; how to adapt to the effects of climate change; how to
deal with climate-related disasters; and whether to take a role in reducing emissions at
home. However, these issues are rarely discussed. Across the board there is little
knowledge or understanding about these choices. Furthermore, climate change is rarely
associated with the extreme weather events the country is experiencing. The topic
remains low on political agendas despite being a daily feature of ordinary Swazis’ lives.
Mthokozi Sibandze, 47, high school
teacher and farmer, Zombodze Emuva,
Shiselweni region.
on climatic changes: The changing weather
means we no longer know when to plant.
It used to be that if you planted before the
15th of November you would always have a
good harvest. But now there is no good time.
Many of the old farmers still plant in
November, as they have always done but the
rains never come.
on drought hardship: This year was the
worst ever. In the past we used to harvest at
least 300 bags ofmaize which kept my
family fed throughout the year and I was
able to sell the surplus for cash. But this year
we onlymanaged 30 bags which will not
even feedmy family let alone provide a
surplus. I support 10 people includingmy
brother’s children. He passed away. This year
is very difficult asmy wage fromteaching
will not support all of them. I do not know
what I will do.
on troubled schoolchildren: Teaching has also
become difficult. The children are hungry and
thirsty.Many fall asleep in their lessons as
they do not have any energy. And sometimes
they become unruly when the school runs
out of water.We have rain harvesters but
they are empty now. The school also has a
vegetable garden but it’s not thriving without
water. The prime beneficiaries are the AIDS
orphans at the school.We usually divide up
the remainder of the crop, or sell it and
deduct the cost of implements like seeds and
fertiliser. But this year there has not been
enough to even feed the orphans.
30 | climate change: the testimonies
swaziland 26°s, 31°e
Trench community irrigation, Swaziland © Natacha Terrot
too little, too late:When he declared the drought a national disaster, PrimeMinister
Themba Dlamini announced the construction of additional water infrastructure such as
earth dams andmacro water schemes. For several years, theMinistry of Agriculture has
attempted to promote the use of drought-resistant sorghumas an alternative tomaize,
and goats, which aremore heat-tolerant, as an alternative to cattle. But Swazi farmers
are slow to change age-old behaviours and few havemade the suggested changes.
fuelling famine: In July 2007, the country held its first National Agricultural Indaba
(summit). Plans for adapting to climate change did not feature once. The question of how
Swaziland intends to dealwith the drought, should it continue into the next planting
season,went unanswered. Instead Swaziland’s politicians promoted agrofuel plantations
as the latest “solution” to Swaziland’s poverty and energy security. In fact, there is growing
concern amongst civil society that these initiatives aremore likely to exacerbate climate
change impacts. This year’s push for agrofuels in neighbouring South Africa, coupledwith
the drought, has caused skyrocketing prices formaize, the national staple. Nowthe Swazis
fear theywill be compelled to compete for foodwith fuel for the cars of thewealthy.
conclusion
In Swaziland, the pace of government change is notoriously slow, but the need to
address climate change grows evermore urgent.Whilst some rural communities have
recognised climatic changes, and are taking steps to respond to them, others are doing
little to rise to this serious challenge. Even successful communities face uncertainty in
terms of their ability to continue to cope with the worsening climate stresses predicted.
Unless urgent action is taken, the situation in Swaziland will only becomemore dire.
1 Compared to the 1980-99 period.
sources
Government of Swaziland,
Swaziland’s First National Communication to the UNFCCC.
unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/swanc1.pdf
Sir Nicholas Stern,
Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change.
Yonge Nawe Environmental Action Group.
(Friends of the Earth Swaziland).
www.yongenawe.com
This and additional testimonies are on-line at
www.foei.org/en/campaigns/climate
climate change: friends of the earth international www.foei.org the testimonies | 31
Great Usutu River dried up, Swaziland © Natacha Terrot
Above: Hail and stormdamage, Swaziland
© FanyanaMabuza 2005, King tides, Funafuti, Tuvalu ©
gary braasch
32 | climate change: the testimonies
King tides, Funafuti, Tuvalu, February 2005 © Gary Braasch
Siuila Toloa, teacher, former Tuvalu Red
Cross secretary, and board member of Island
Care, a Tuvalu environmental group.
on the global politics of climate change:
Countries are denying the fact that it is our
business to address climate change. I say it is
OUR business. Tuvalu is a small country.We
are looking at facing a big problemthere …
We can barely save our people’s lives if the
story comes true and Tuvalu is sinking. … The
small island states contribute insignificantly
to global emissions, but suffermost.
on the prospect of tuvaluans becoming climate
refugees: Climate change is an environmental
issue that leads to the complete obliteration of
Tuvalu. …Tuvaluans become climate change
refugeeswhen the land of Tuvalu becomes
uninhabitable.With this last resort adaptation
to climate changewe Tuvaluans lose our
sovereignty, our traditional customs. I think you
all knowhowimportant these are to us as
native landholders.
on local impacts: Tuvalu lives off a
subsistence income and therefore is heavily
dependent on its immediate surroundings:
themarine and terrestrial resources. The
people are noticing amarked decline in their
traditional crops andmarine resource
harvest. In other words, there is a decline in
local food security.
Once in 2003, themost amazing thing, we
really don’t know why—it was just a really
calmday and high waves came, affecting the
coastal areas and really damaged the
people’s gardens. And then frequent drought
—it’s so frequent … threemonths of
drought, it is really bad for us.
onwater: The decrease in locally grown food is
the product of an increase in areas that are
degraded by salt water intrusion. This reduces
the land’s productive capabilities. … It has
affected traditional crops of six of Tuvalu’s
eight islands and it will increase. Some family
residences have been affected. It has also
increased groundwater salinity. … This [ground
water] is themain source of potablewater for
Tuvalu andwe have lost a valuable resource.
On the string of coral reefs and atolls that formTuvalu, the highest ground is just 4.5
metres abovemean tide level, andmost iswell belowthat. Each year Islanders nervously
await king tides, the year’s highest tides. That’swhen salty oceanwater overcomes
shorelines, and bubbles up through the islands’porous limestone. Crops, homes and roads
are flooded.Many scientists believe that king tides, naturally driven by a combination of
short- and long-termtidal cycles, are nowbecomingmore extreme due to sea level rise
fromglobalwarming. Tuvaluans’ ability to growfood has already been affected, andmidrange
UN projectionswarn that the very continuity of their island life is at risk.
impacts
“Even recently, one of the islands by (our) main island capital just disappeared.”1
Former Tuvalu PrimeMinisterMaatia Toafa, in Japan,May 2006.
A remote Pacific nation, Tuvalu ismade up of nine islands lying halfway between Hawaii
and Australia, scattered across 560 kilometres of the Pacific Ocean. Just 400metres across at
itswidest point, Tuvalu’s homes, infrastructure, and commercial activities are never far from
the seafront. Half the population of about 11,500 lives just threemetres above sea level.
This fact demonstrates why the lives and health of those on Tuvalu and other small
island developing states (along with the North African region) have already been
declared by the UN IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) as being the
most vulnerable to climate change.2 A fullmetre’s width of land has been lost to the sea
fromaround Tuvalu’s largest atoll, and record levels of flooding and spring tide peaks
have occurred in recent years.
a level of controversy: Just howmuch the sea level has risen, and will rise in future, is
still debated. Some scientists assert the rate of rise is 2mmper year at Tuvalu, and global
averages indicate sea levels rose 10-20 cmover the 20th century.3 The latest UNmidrange
figures predict a global sea level rise of 20-43 cmover the next century. However,
these predictions don’t include possiblemeltdown of ice sheets such as Greenland’s,
which would lead to increasesmeasured inmetres instead of centimetres, experts say.
Furthermore, Pacific atollsmay be naturally subsiding, whichmakes Tuvaluans even
more vulnerable to climate change.
fragile foundation: The coral that forms Tuvalu’s reefs and atolls (ring-shaped coral
islands enclosing lagoons) provides natural breakwaters that shield shorelines from
waves and stormsurges. Coral reefs also provide habitat for fish and wetlands. Yet coral’s
vulnerability to climate change is another concern in Tuvalu, where the coral grows
relatively slowly and likely won’t keep up with sea level rise. Nor will coral tolerate
changes in water surface temperature or rising ocean CO2 levels.4
cyclone danger: Tuvalu is also located near the cyclone belt.5 “We are already
experiencing increased frequency of cyclones, tornados, flooding, and tide surgesmany
of which unexpectedly hit us outside the usual climatic seasons of the islands,”6 Tuvalu’s
former PrimeMinister told the UN in 1997. Sea level rise coupled with increased cyclone
activity threatens extreme flooding events. Islanders have not forgotten 1972 Cyclone
Bebe, which left 800 homeless.
islanders lose ground
to rising seas
authors Stephanie Long, Friends of the Earth Australia
& JaniceWormworth
8°s, 179°e tuvalu
climate change: the testimonies | 33
freshwater is another growing concern: Formany Pacific Island nations, especially atoll
nations such as Tuvalu, rainwater is themajorwater source. An important backup is the
thin layer of underground freshwater (called a freshwater “lens”)which sits atop the
heavier, deeper saltwater. In Tuvalu both these freshwater resources are at risk. The El Niño
Southern Oscillation (ENSO),which is expected to becomemore frequent and persistent,
has caused droughts for Tuvalu7,while sea level rise threatens the freshwater lens.8
poisoned paradise: Tuvaluans have always relied on locally-grown food and fishing tomeet
their needs. Yet on six Tuvalu islands, rising sea level is alreadymaking some soils too salty,
poisoning gardens. For example, puluka, a giant swamp plant and Tuvalu’smain source of
taro, is grown in deep pits to tap the freshwater lens. Puluka cannot tolerate salt and is very
vulnerable to saltwater intrusion. These problems, alongwith land shortages, and increased
purchasing power due to employment, have led to a shift fromlocal to imported foods.
unhealthy trends: Tuvaluans’dietary shift fromlocal to imported food is already
associated with lifestyle diseases such as high hypertension and diabetes. Another
important health risk relates to water.Malaria and dengue fever can becomemore
prevalent with warming and flooding. Failed sewage and water systems due to flooding
can also increase the prevalence of other diseases.9
adaptation
“We live in constant fear of the adverse impacts of climate change. For a coral
atoll nation, sea level rise and more severe weather events loom as a growing
threat to our entire population. The threat is real and serious, and is of no
difference to a slow and insidious form of terrorism against us.”
Former Tuvalu PrimeMinister Saufatu Sopoanga at the UN General Assembly, NewYork, 2003
Pacific islanders contribute little to the problemof global warming, producing only 0.03
percent of the global emissions (fromburning fossil fuels), though they are home to 0.12
percent of the world’s population.10 Yet Tuvaluans’ losses will be great indeed if
international action is not taken to arrest global warming; they will ultimately be forced
to abandon their homeland.
small but vocal: Thus onemajor Tuvalu survival strategy has been a strong presence at
international climate change negotiations, starting in 1992. Though amajor expense for
the word’s second-smallest independent country (by population), Tuvalu joined the
United Nations in 2000, to further spotlight climate change. UNmembership allows
Tuvalu to position itself as a conscience and to be themost vocal voice in this crucial
work, with and on behalf of the Association of Small Island States.
grassroots approaches: On the home front, the strongly-Christian nation can draw on
the church, which can play amajor role in civil society and grassroots approaches to
climate change. In terms of practicalmeasures, so far Tuvaluans have been adapting by
planting crops in buckets, rather than in the ground, as a response to saltwater intrusion.
Introducing salt-tolerant crops is another logical step, one ofmany that scientists and
government officials urge as “no-regrets” policies—those that make sense regardless of
whether the seas rise. Tree-planting programs to protect beaches fromerosion have
been led by NGOs, and sea-walls have been constructed to protect fromstormsurges.
friends of the earth international www.foei.org
King tides, Funafuti, Tuvalu, February 2005 © Gary Braasch
AnnieHomasi, Coordinator,
Tuvalu Association of Non-Governmental
Organisations.
on local impacts: The weather changes and
heat affects people, but also sea-level rise. …
My own experience is that during spring
tides inMarch,my house concrete
foundation is now half in the water. This is
what I have seen and based onmy own
markings of the water level at my house.
on global politics of climate change:
The Australian government has not been
willing to consider environmental refugees,
and is not very friendly. New Zealand has
beenmore flexible and a work scheme has
been negotiated between New Zealand and
Tuvalu. People in Tuvalu are thinking that
they will need tomake amove because of
global warming. People living inMelbourne,
Australia, who havemoved there 30 or 40
years ago are very concerned about where
people of Tuvalu will be able to go.
Moving away fromTuvalu is not good for our
culture and values.Where we live now, we
know how to behave and live within our
means. It will not be comfortable to live in
another place.We want to live in our own
land, our home and where our forefathers
have lived. Tuvaluan people don’t like to be
called refugees.
“Moving away from Tuvalu is not good for our culture and values.
We want to live in our own land, our home and where our forefathers have lived.
Tuvaluan people don’t like to be called refugees.”
Annie Homasi, Coordinator, Tuvalu Association of Non-Governmental Organisations.
34 | climate change: the testimonies
Another no-regrets policy would be addressing local pollution caused by population
growth and poor environmentalmanagement. Garbage is dumped on beach areas and
in “borrow pits” dug by the US Army duringWWII. Garbage and liquid waste threatens
to pollute underground drinking water, and sea water, and could thus harmcorals.11 Yet
another step would be to curtail beachmining which speeds up coastal erosion. Though
illegal, this is done to providematerial to build homes; yet constructionmaterial could
be obtained in less destructive ways. Awareness projects on climate change are also
needed, especially for inhabitants on outer islands who lack access to information and
are less likely to speak English.
“We don’t want to leave this place.We don’t want to leave, it’s our land,
our God given land, it is our culture, we can’t leave. People won’t leave until
the very last minute.”
Former Assistant Secretary, TuvaluMinistry of Natural Resources, Energy and Environment, Paani Laupepa.
the last resort: Climate refugees are likely to be the largest and fastest-growing category
of ecologically displaced people.12 Tuvalu is the first country forced to evacuate residents
because of rising sea levels;many Tuvaluans have alsomigrated internally, to the larger
atoll of Funafuti fromouter islands.
The Tuvalu government has actively pursuedmigration options. One result is New
Zealand’s Pacific Access Category programme, which accepts 75 Tuvaluans each year.
Yet applicantsmust be of “good character and health, have basic English skills, have a job
offer in New Zealand, and be under 45 years of age”.13 Tuvalu government representatives
have so farmet with no success in attempts to discuss immigration with Australia.
conclusion
“What’s more, the people of Tuvalu want to see a positive response from you
people on the issue of climate change.We need to work together as friends
to address the climate change issue. To do this all developed countries must
ratify the Kyoto Protocol … If you love us, please, sign the Kyoto Protocol
for Tuvalu’s sake.”
Tuvaluan teacher and environmentalist Siuila Toloa.
Climate change is a risk to environments worldwide, but on Tuvalu and other small
island states, whole nations and cultures are in jeopardy. Small size and limited access to
capital, technology, and human resources compound the difficulties atoll countries such
as Tuvalu face in adapting to climate change.
Ultimately, however, Tuvalu will be unable to adapt in the face of the relentless sea level
rise and extreme weather events that would follow a global failure to curtail emissions.
This fact explains the urgency with which Tuvalu’s leaders plead their case in
international climate change fora. At risk is a nation’s unique culture—traditional skills,
knowledge, social networks and agricultural practices that have allowed Tuvaluans to
survive on their island paradise for 3,000 years. The loss of Tuvalu, possible within this
century, wouldmake our human community somuch the poorer.
1 www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/
newsid/36546/story.htm.
2 IPCC (2001): Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and
Vulnerability. Cambridge.www.ipcc.ch/pub/reports.htm, p. 847.
3 The 7.1million citizens in 22 Pacific island countries, including
Tuvalu, are responsible for emissions of approximately 6.816
million tons of CO2 per year.
www.germanwatch.org/download/klak/fb-tuv-e.pdf
4 UNFCCC (Eds., 1999): Tuvalu Initial National Communication
Under the United Nations Framework Convention of Climate
Change;www.unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/tuvnc1.pdf., p. 28.
5 UNFCC 1999, p. 13.
6 www.tuvaluislands.com/kyoto-panieu.htm.
7 IPCC (2001), p. 861.
8 www.foe.org.au/resources/publications/climatejustice/
CitizensGuide.pdf/view.
9 IPCC (2001), p. 864.
10 IPCC (2001), p. 867.
11 UNFCCC (1999), p. 29.
12 www.foei.org/publications/pdfs/island.pdf.
13 www.germanwatch.org/download/klak/fb-tuv-e.pdf.
sources
Friends of the Earth Australia (2007).
A Citizen’s Guide to Climate Refugees.
www.foe.org.au/resources/publications/climatejustice/
CitizensGuide.pdf/view
GermanWatch (2004) Climate Change Challenges Tuvalu.
www.germanwatch.org/download/klak/fb-tuv-e.pdf
Global Policy Forum(2003) The Canary is Drowning:
Tiny Tuvalu Fights Back Against Climate Change.
www.globalpolicy.org/nations/micro/2002/1203canary.htm
This and additional testimonies are on-line at
www.foei.org/en/campaigns/climate
tuvalu8°s, 179°e
King tides, Funafuti, Tuvalu, February 2005 © Gary Braasch
climate change: the testimonies | 35
ukniintgeddom
51°n, 0°w
tides of change threaten
historic town
authors Roland O’Brien & Ronnie Hall,
Save Our Selsey
The ancient coastal UK village of Selsey has always had an uneasy relationship
with the sea. Nowclimate change threatens this tight-knit communitywith new
and unprecedented challenges in the formof sea-level rise, stormsurges and flooding.
Confrontedwith the prospect of UK Government withdrawal of economic support,
residents face huge economic obstacles if they are to succeed in their bid to “climate-proof”
their local landscape. The Selsey community’s plight highlights the growing debate over
whether centralized, top-down planning should dominate over local aspirationswhen it
comes tomanaging climate change adaptation.
impacts
“People living in Selsey believe they should be allowed to determine their own
future.We want social justice to be included in any plans to adapt to climate
change, so that poorer, less influential communities like ours won’t be
sacrificed by inflexible government and international edicts.”
Roland O’Brien, 47, campaign leader, Save Our Selsey campaign.
a spirited seaside community: Selsey lies on a peninsula1 that juts out into the English
Channel on England’s South Coast. Its local economy is based on tourismand
horticulture and it still boasts a fishing fleet famous for its lobster and crab catches.
A small, relatively isolated town, Selsey has escaped some of the worst impacts of
globalisation and has an exceptionally strong sense of identity and community.
Yet Selsey’s vulnerability to climate changemeans this vibrant community—which has
persisted since around year 400 AD—could almost completely disappear by the end
of this century.
the rising tide of climate risk: The latest research fromthe IPPC (Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change) warns that areas in the north-eastern Atlantic will experience
increases in wind speeds and stormintensity in the first half of this century. Looking at
more localised predictions, research by the UK Climate Impacts Programme warns that
subsidence risk, flood risk and water resource pressures are the biggest climate change
impacts for south-east England, where Selsey is located.2 In fact, sea levels in this part of
England could rise asmuch as 74 centimetres by 2080.3 Impacts of sea-level rise include
flooding, erosion, land loss, salinisation of water, and destruction of built property and
infrastructure.4 Extreme high-water levels fromstormsurges are expected to increase in
height and becomemore frequent.5 Selsey is also well-known in the UK for its
vulnerability to recent tornados; a 1998 tornado damaged one thousand homes, causing
an estimated USD 16million worth of damage.
sense of security fading fast: Low-lying parts of Selsey have often been flooded by the
sea during stormy weather. After a particularly bad flood fifty years ago, the government
built concrete sea walls around the front of the town to protect it. They also replenished
the long shingle beach that protects the back of the town fromflooding. Selsey’s
residents thought they were safe, and so did the authorities.
Blanche Butlin,
51, fairground owner, Selsey.
on the constant risk of flooding: I’ve run
Selsey’s seaside fairground withmy husband
for 16 years now, but we’removing a bit
further inland now because we’re exhausted.
We’ve been flooded at least ten times, and at
best you’ve only got twentyminutes to
collect your things together and get out
before the water is in the caravan. The
fairground equipment gets ruined too. Every
time there’s a high tide and a gale, especially
a Southerly wind, I worry we’ll be flooded
again,maybe while we’re asleep.
on being abandoned by government:
One of the government’s proposalsmeans the
fairground andmuch of the campsitewould
disappear permanently, as the sea is allowed to
breach our crumbling coastal defences. They
call it “managed retreat”tomake it soundmore
acceptable, but it isn’t. They’re abandoning
Selsey, they don’t care about the peoplewho
live here or their livelihoods. Butwe’re not
responsible for climate change,why shouldwe
have to bear the costs of it on our own?
Blanche Butlin, United Kingdom© Gary Butlin
friends of the earth international www.foei.org
36 | climate change: the testimonies
Over the years,many houses were built in areas that used to flood, and the village grew
into a small town of 12,000 people. But with sea levels and storminess on the rise with
climate change, Selsey is no longer safe. Its coastal defences are already being
undermined: during the winter of 2006-7, a violent stormbroke the sea wall and the
land behind it began to erode.
will the government abandon selsey? The UK Government is refusing to fund repairs to
the wall becausemany other communities around Britain are facing similar problems;
government funds are being allocated to big cities, not small towns and villages.
Faced with increasing concerns about the cost of adapting to climate change, the UK
Government is threatening to withdraw funding for vital coastal protection of Selsey.
The government has formally proposed to abandon some of Selsey’s coastal defences
and will onlymaintain others if residents pay for them. The options provided by the
government will have devastating socioeconomic impacts on the community, but this is
ignored under current government guidelines.
what is at stake: The town’s 12,000 residents are now presented with the overwhelming
prospect of a bill totallingmore than USD 67million to save their community.
A quarter of Selsey’s houses are in flood zones andmanymore are threatened by erosion.
USD 47millionwould be needed to protect them. To stop the sea sweeping around behind
the town andmaking it an island again, Selseywould need a further USD 20million.
Many Selsey residents work in neighbouring cities, thusmaintaining the causeway is
essential if they are to keep their jobs and continue to live in Selsey.Moreover, Selsey’s
biggest employer – Europe’s largest caravan park – would be partially destroyed, with
the loss of hundreds of jobs and a huge drop in tourismrevenue. Ultimately,many small
businesses in the town would be forced to close, even though Selsey is already poor by
regional standards. Residents believe this would be the end of Selsey as a community.
adaptation
“I still hope that the government will help to fund our coastal defences,
although I don’t mind making a contribution. But I need to be sure that
whatever is put in place will really work. And I don’t know what they actually
mean when they say that local residents will have to pay for any coastal
defences to be maintained.What about people who can’t afford it?
Will it all have to be paid at once or will it be spread over twenty years?”
Karen Craig, 42, office worker, Selsey.
a resourceful community: Selsey’s rich, 1,600-year history needn’t end like this.
Vulnerable coastal communities are accustomed to innovating and adapting in the face
of a rapidly-changing environment, and Selsey is no exception. Local fishermen have
embraced conservationmeasures to protect stock, switched to catching new species,
and found new export markets for their shellfish. The local tourismindustry has
diversified into leisure pursuits such as scuba diving.While government authorities are
focussed solely on the pitfalls of defending the land, the Selsey community is positive
and proactive, adapted tomaking themost of living by a volatile sea.
ukniintgeddom
51°n, 0°w
RogerMaycock, 42, local tiler, Selsey.
on the prospect of losing his house: I bought
a new house in Selsey seven years ago, very
close to the seafront. I did worry about
whether the coastal defences were OK, but
my neighbours and I decided it must be safe:
there was no way the authorities would
allow 300 brand new houses to be built on
land threatened by flooding and erosion.
How wrong we were.My house is in the zone
the government wants to abandon to the
sea.We did think ofmoving but we can’t
find anywhere we want tomove to. Selsey is
special, it’s got amuch stronger community
spirit than anywhere else. So we’re staying
for now, we’ll see what happens.
on adapting to climate change:
I think the idea of building an artificial reef
would be an excellent solution. If you take a
boat out to sea fromSelsey you can see for
yourself that the water is shallow for at least
100metres, so it’s ideal, it would be an easy
place to construct a reef. And it’s always
really windy here, so it’s a perfect place for
wind turbines too. Surely the government
can understand that this is the best way
forward for Selsey and that it can help stop
climate change too?
RogerMaycock, United Kingdom© Gary Butlin
climate change: friends of the earth international www.foei.org the testimonies | 37
local solutions to a global problem: People in Selsey want to adapt to climate change
constructively and sustainably. They want to invite commercial investors to build a wind
farmoffshore, on a new rock reef. The wind turbines would generate clean electricity;
enough for Selsey, and excess to sell to the national grid to provide a return for investors.
The reef would help to protect Selsey’s coast fromstormdamage,making coastal
defences sustainable for decades and giving people time to develop ways of dealing with
inevitable sea level rise. The reef would also provide a new breeding ground for crabs and
lobsters for the local fishery, and a new attraction for scuba-diving tourists. Furthermore,
it would create sheltered water that would facilitate the development of water sports,
generating economic activity andmore funds to help raise the sea walls and stimulate
the town’s shops, restaurants andmarine businesses.
government intransigence: But the British Government is demonstrating a remarkable
lack of flexibility, insisting on plans that would “protect” the coast for aminimumof 100
years. Investors, however, do not work on a 100-year timescale.Wind turbines have a
30-year lifespan, after which the project would need to be reviewed. Selsey could then
adapt further to changing sea levels, if needed.
No-one is certain where climate change will take us in 30 years, let alone 100. But the
Government is refusing to allow Selsey to develop its own solutions and protect its way
of life, even though the Government’s proposed solution—“managed retreat”—means
losing land, homes and businesses.
separate government agenda? Significantly, perhaps, the British Government is also
under a legal environmental obligation to create new salt marshes, to compensate
for thousands of hectares that will be lost as sea-level rise affects nearby estuaries.
Scientists have identified the low-lying land around Selsey as ideal for the creation
of suchmarshlands in the event that the land is flooded.
Yet this course of actionmeans abandoning people’s homes, ruining the livelihoods of those
who depend upon the land, and destroying the future of Selsey’s children,with no
compensation available for homes and jobs lost. Is the government putting a convenient
solution to its conservation challenges ahead of preserving the ancient community of Selsey?
“My mum and dad were both brought up in Selsey so our family’s been here
for a long time. I don’t want it to change, I like it how it is. If we let our sea
defences go a lot of Selsey will be underwater in 50-100 years’ time. I think we
should have a reef and windmills and rebuild our sea defences.”
Beatrice O’Brien, 11, Selsey.
Roland O’Brien, 47, campaign leader,
Save Our Selsey campaign.
on community rights: People living in Selsey
believe they should be allowed to determine
their own future.Wewant social justice to be
included in any plans to adapt to climate
change, so that poorer, less influential
communities like ourswon’t be sacrificed by
inflexible government and international edicts.
Our town’s young people got together and
wrote 400 letters demanding that our
community is given a right to determine its
future.We’re immensely proud of them,
but will the government listen?
Roland O’Brien, United Kingdom© Gary Butlin
Left: Seal Primary School climate letter writing campaign,
United Kindom© Gary Butlin Right: Beatrice O’Brien,
United Kingdom© Gary Butlin
38 | climate change: the testimonies
conclusion
In the wealthy North, financial resources are available for adapting to climate change.
However, a key issue is whether governments will impose centrally-planned responses
upon people, or whether they will support communities’ bids for local solutions
to these new challenges.
The UK’s coastal zones are home to 16.9million people,many in small towns like Selsey
that are at risk fromsea level rise. Even so, the case of Selsey illustrates that our biggest
threat may not be the sea, but legislation that denies us the right to determine our
communities’ future.
This is a social justice issue as well as an environmental one. People deserve the freedom
to determine their own futures through local adaptation to climate change. If they are
denied this freedom, their human rights are undermined.
1 Selsey was actually an island until a causeway was built.
2 www.ukcip.org.uk/climate_impacts/location.asp.
3 www.ukcip.org.uk/scenarios/ukcip02_extras/sea_level_
change.asp.
4 www.ipcc-wg2.org/, p. 550-551.
5 www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/hadleycentre/pubs/
brochures/2005/climate_greenhouse.pdf, p. 50.
sources
Save Our Selsey campaign.
www.saveourselsey.org
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.
Contribution ofWorking Group II to the Fourth Assessment
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
www.ipcc-wg2.org/
UK Climate Impacts Programme.
www.ukcip.org.uk
This and additional testimonies are on-line at
www.foei.org/en/campaigns/climate
DaveMorgan, 50, information
technology consultant and amateur
scuba diver, Selsey.
on funding coastal protection:
Even though Selsey’s grown into a small
town, people still insist on calling it a
village, because it has a village attitude.
People stick together, they look after each
other. Perhaps it’s because we’re a
relatively isolated community.
But we’re also neglected by the
government. I paymy taxes but I don’t see
muchmoney coming back intomy
community. I think they should at least
match any funding we can raise locally.
If we built an artificial reef, like theWorld
War TwoMulberry Harbour at nearby
Pagham, that would be great. It would
benefit marine wildlife and bring inmore
income that we could use tomaintain our
sea defences.
february 2005, King tides, Funafuti, Tuvalu © gary braasch
ukniintgeddom
51°n, 0°w
Left: Damaged sea defenses, Selsey, United Kindom
Right: Sea defenses, Selsey, United Kindom©Save Our Selsey
voices from communities
affected by climate change
friends of the earth international
november 2007
contributors Tatiana Roa Avendaño, CENSAT Agua Viva/Friends of the Earth Colombia. Polly Buchhorn and Stephanie Long, Friends of the Earth Australia.
Carolina Herrmann Coelho de Souza, Friends of the Earth Brazil. Dr Juan Almendares,MovimientoMadre Tierra/Friends of the Earth Honduras.
Sangeetha AmarthalingamandMeenakshi Raman, Sahabat AlamMalaysia/Friends of the EarthMalaysia.Moctar Coulibaly,Malian Association
for integrated? and Participative Development. JaniceWormworth.Maria Teresa Pinelo and Victor Emilio Sanchez Campos, Asociacion Civil Labor/Friends
of the Earth Peru. Natacha Terrot, Yonge Nawe Environmental Action/Friends of the Earth Swaziland. Roland O'Brien and Ronnie Hall, Save Our Selsey.
with thanks to Gary Braasch, Nix Fox and FanyanaMabuza for permission to reprint photographs. Elena deMunno (French translation)
and Alberto Villareal (Spanish translation).Made possible with support fromOxfamNovib, the Isvara Foundation andMilieudefensie/FoE Netherlands.
editorial teamStephanie Long, Carolina Herrmann Coelho de Souza, JaniceWormworth, Ann Doherty.
print Beelzepub, Belgiumdesign www.onehemisphere.se
Printed on recycled post-consumer waste paper (Cyclus Offset) with vegetable-based ink.
14°s, 87°e
“First, organize; second, fight for just causes; third, have the will and spirit to work; fourth, educate yourself
and have a vision for the future of our grandchildren, great-grandchildren and great-great-grandchildren,
so that in the future they are well educated, and so that they can have a better environment and a better country.”
Maritza Arévalo Amador, a 58-year-old single mother of five, Flor #1 neighbourhood, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.
climate
change
friends of the earth international secretariat P.O. Box 19199, 1000 GD Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Tel: 31 20 622 1369 Fax: 31 20 639 2181 E-mail: info@foei.org website www.foei.org
These and additional testimonies are on-line at www.foei.org/en/campaigns/climate
voices from communities
affected by climate change
friends of the earth international
november 2007
Back cover:Maritza Arévalo Amador © Candy Baiza